Environment

1. Environment The International Agenda

2. Interdependence • Global threats to the environment are a source of interdependence. • Actions taken by one state affect others access to natural resources and to the benefits of a healthy environment. • A sustainable natural environment is a collective good. • Countries share the benefits of a healthy environment or the costs of an environmental breakdown.

3. The Collective Goods Problem • Achieving shared benefits that depend on overcoming conflicting interests. • Based on reciprocity: who gets the benefits and who bears the costs of environmental protection. • Free riders • Epistemic communities (knowledge-based communities)

4. International Awareness • First Earth Day raised attention in 1970 • First UN conference on international environment, Stockholm 1972. • Adopted general principles and raised awareness. • From there, conference every 10 years • Nairobi, Kenya • Rio de Janeiro, Brazil • Johanesburg, South Africa

5. Global Warming • A slow, long-term rise in the average of temperature, caused by the emission of carbon dioxide and other gases. • Could alter weather patterns, droughts, floods, freezes and disruption of natural ecosystems. • It is costly to reduce the emission of gases. • Would likely increase unemployment, reduce corporate profits and lower incomes. • For individual states the costs are almost unrelated to the benefits. • Short term costs vs. long term benefits. • Specific institutions (like states or industries) pay the costs, but benefits are shared.

6. Global Warming • Many attempts to force the reduction of emissions have failed. • Kyoto Protocol (1997) • A complex formula to reach 1990 emissions in the North in a decade. • South received preferential treatment. • China´s coal-burning economy is a major fact in global warming. • US has not ratified the treaty, although some states and cities have taken certain steps to limit greenhouse effect emissions.

7. Ozone Depletion • Ozone in the atmosphere sends harmful ultraviolet rays. Chemicals break the ozone layer. • Costs of replacing CFC’s are much lower than addressing global warming. • States have had much more success in negotiating agreements.

8. Forests and Oceans • Tropical rain forests and ocenas are specially important to biodiversity and atmosphere. • Are also commercially profitable. • They are collective goods. • Most rain forests belong to few states, unlike oceans that belong to no states but are global commons. • Oceans are attractive for short-term abuse, that cause long-term damage (nuclear waste, over fishing, etc.)