Approaches to Sustainable E-Learning in a Changing Landscape

1. Approaches to Sustainable E-Learning in a Changing Landscape A Scoping Study (SELScope) SSeLF Challenge 3: Learning to change 17th of September 2010

2. Background to the Scoping Study • Funded by UK Higher Education Academy (HEA) • Led by the Caledonian Academy at Glasgow Caledonian University • Conducted as part of the SSeLF SIG that provides a platform for exploration and debate in addressing the issues of sustainable e-learning practice. • The SELScope report is expected to be completed in October 2010. • The study is aimed at researchers interested in sustainable E-learning.

3. General Overview The study: • scopes the available literature on the concept of sustainability in e-learning • investigates possible approaches towards sustainable teaching and learning in the Higher Education (HE) sector.

4. Aims of the Scoping Study • Scope empirical studies in the area of e-learning that demonstrate and discuss sustainable forms of teaching and learning; • Highlight emerging issues in the research area; • Identify gaps in the literature on sustainable e-learning practice for future research.

5. Objectives of the Scoping Study Objective 1: Explore the concept of sustainability and establish afoundation for the scoping review of sustainable e- learning practice. (i.e. working definitionof sustainable e-learning, operational boundaries, and key dimensions). Objective 2: Conduct a review of the literature and, subsequently, assess, collate and synthesisethe reviewed studies. Derive the emerging themes and evident issues of sustainable e-learning. Objective 3: Report a list of themes associated with sustainable e-learning in line with the operational boundaries. Objective 4: Discuss the issues in sustainable e-learning that are the most prominent in the reviewed literature. Objective 5: Identify and discuss the issues that require further research.

6. Why Study Sustainability?

7. Introduction and Rationale Higher Education (HE) sector faces a number of challenges that relate to: • Quality • Sector Expansion • Student Diversity • Technological Progress • International Competition

8. Introduction and Rationale The global economic crisis has resulted in widespread cuts in funding. HE Sector experiences financial constraints in: • Europe • North America • Australia

9. Introduction and Rationale Australian Higher Education implements: • 20% budget cuts in 2011-2012 The State of California, USA: • 6.8% funding cuts in 2009-2010 • Reduced student intake and increase of fees at California State University (CSU) and the University of California (UC) Canadian Government: • Cuts in $150 million in 2009 • Increase by only $32 million in 2010

10. Introduction and Rationale European University Association reports: • 48% funding cuts in Latvia for 2009 • 5% to 10% cuts in Italy, Estonia, Ireland and Romania • Up to 5% cuts in Czech Republic, Poland, Croatia, Serbia and Macedonia • Possible reversal to increasing budgets and raising student numbers in Nordic countries, Austria and Spain. Higher Education Funding Council of England announced in December 2009 • £915 million governmental funding cuts

11. Introduction and Rationale Among the considered strategies to the funding cuts are the ‘iron triangle’ of: • Efficiency savings • Reduced number of students • Higher payments from graduates Other considered strategies include (e.g.): • Intake of international students

12. Introduction and Rationale

13. Introduction and Rationale Reputation of universities is sensitive to a number of factors (e.g.): • Student opinions • Quality of teaching and research • Partnership initiatives How to best approach the funding cuts?

14. E-learning as a Solution? E-learning has certainly a potential to benefit the sector. • Efficient teaching practices? • Flexible approaches to learning and teaching? • Online community building and collaboration? • Reuse of educational resources? • Adaptive teaching and learning?

15. Methodological Approach Scoping Study (scoping review) is a type of literature review that: • identifies underpinning concepts and maps the research literature • tends to address broader topics • leads to identification of emerging themes • leads to identification of trends in diverse and extensive bodies of scientific knowledge

16. Methodological Framework The study employs a five-phase methodological framework by Arksey and Malley (2005) to ensure a systematic approach. Phase 1: Explore the concept of sustainability to capture its extent, range and nature and operationalise the concept. Step 1.1: Initial review to explore the variety of approaches employed in sustainable e-learning research. Step 1.2: Adopt a working definition for the term sustainable e-learning. Step 1.3: Identify operational domains of sustainability studies. Step 1.4: Compile a set of factors commonly considered in sustainable e-learning research. Step 1.5: Derive a set of keywords suitable for searching the literature.

17. Methodological Framework Phase 2: Conduct a comprehensive search to identify relevant studies. Phase 3: Define and apply inclusion and exclusioncriteria to all the identified studies. Phase 4: Chart the data and compile a spreadsheet that summarises the data. Phase 5: Collate and report the results in relation to the operational domains, discussing most prominent issues of sustainable e-learning and identifying knowledge gaps in the area.

18. Data Sources Main data sources included: • British Education Index (BEI) • Australian Education Index (AUEI) • Education Resources Information Center (ERIC)

19. Phase 1: Exploring Sustainability in E-learning What is Sustainability? The concept of sustainability: • stretches across a academic disciplines and includes philosophical, historical, economic, political, social and culturalperspectives • varies widely throughout the literature in its definition.

20. Phase 1: Exploring Sustainability in E-learning A coherent argument on sustainability requires both: • succinct definition of the term • demarcation of factors required to identify sustainability

21. Phase 1: Exploring Sustainability in E-learning Sustainability discourse in the area of education is developing in two main directions: • education for sustainability - environmental sustainability through educational solutions. • sustainability ofeducation - implementation of sustainable forms of ‘successful’ practice.

22. Phase 1: Exploring Sustainability in E-learning Working definition for the term sustainability: Sustainability is the property of e-learning practice that evidently addresses current educational needs and accommodates continuous adaptation to change, without outrunning its resource base or receding in effectiveness.

23. Phase 1: Domains, Levels and Themes of Sustainable E-learning Inspired by ecological perspective we identify three operational domains of sustainable e-learning.

24. Resource Management Resource Management includes literature on the resources required for the successful design and practice of e-learning: • staff time • costs associated with the choice of technology and media • economies of scale and scope

25. Educational Attainment Educational Attainment includes issues of effectiveness and of the quality of e-learning. • Commitment to continuous quality improvement • Educational outcomes • Benchmarking based on: [a] learning designs [b] learning resources [c] delivery processes

26. Professional Development and Innovation Professional Development and Innovation focuses on the continuous professional improvement of teachers and their innovation or experimentation with new technologies. • Training programmes • Communities of practice • Learning Networks

27. Phase 2-3: Literature Search and Relevance The search was conducted within the defined operational boundaries (i.e.): • Resource Management • Educational Attainment • Professional Development and Innovation

28. Phase 4: Charting Data

29. Phase 5: Resource Management Discussion of Cost-Effectiveness dominates the literature in this domain Models and Frameworks: Retrospective vs. Planning • Molenda (2009) suggests a systems theory approach. • Nicol and Coen (2003) and Laurillard (2007) suggest a detailed and more complex evaluation mechanisms . • Cohen and Nachmias (2006) propose a quantitative mechanism of web-mining and log analysis for cost-effectiveness of online instruction. Guarantee of cost-effectiveness is questionable due to limited universal applicability.

30. Resource Management Transformative Change: ‘Immediate’ vs. ‘Cultural’ • Re-engineering of Assessment Practices (REAP) (Nicol, 2007) of formative assessment and feedback practices supported by technology. • Pew Programme (Twigg, 2003a) initiated redesign of courses reducing staff-time and using technological affordances. • Mayes (2009) criticised Pew Programme for advocating cultural change and addition of qualitative approaches to evaluations. • Culture change as an important factor in achieving sustainability (Gunn, 2010)

31. Resource Management Cost-effectiveness of Distance and Blended Learning: • Differences in emphasis: Costs vs. Effectiveness • E-learning does not reduce costs in blended settings unless planned. Distance: • Cost-benefit analysis of their online program (Parker et al., 2001; Van Hoogstraat et al., 2005) – reporting revenue loss unless increasing number of students, tuition fees or both. • Bates (2005) offers a model for building a business plan for developing, implementing and maintaining online courses • Economies of scale are considered important by (Perraton and Naidu, 2006) Blended: • Computer Based Assessment (CBA) (Bull 2003) caries a potential for saving staff time within the next two years – mainly due to use of question banks • Videoconferencing for guest lectures has been welcomed by students (Lück and Laurence 2005) • Affordable alternatives to technologies, i.e. interactive whiteboards (Vallis and Williamson 2009) are encouraged for consideration.

32. Resource Management Open Educational Resources (OERs) and Learning Materials: • Significant reduction in staff-time in developing courses when reusing learning resources (Weller 2004) • Increased attention to open sharing and reuse of educational resources from educational institutions and policy makers (Baraniuk, 2008) – HEFCE, JISC, HEA • There is a potential for emerging business models such as ‘produsage’, user-led collaborative creation of content (Bruns, 2006) • OERs offer benefits of cost-savings in developing countries (Thakrar et al., 2009).

33. Resource Management Affordable Technologies: Reduction of cost per head of student learning • Use of ebooks compared to printed books is does not affect achievement but less preferred by students (Annand 2008). • Substitution of books with web-based materials that are distributed via VLE are considered possible (Klymkowsky 2007).

34. Educational Attainment Quality of e-learning and its impact is widely discussed in educational literature. We are witnessing: • Continuously expanding knowledge base • Emerging policies and guidelines for quality improvement • Organisations for improving the quality and dissemination of effective teaching approaches

35. Educational Attainment No Significant Difference Phenomenon: • A meta-analysis (Clark 2001) suggests significant learning benefits when using information technologies. • Online students benefit more, due to greater control of the medium of learning (Means et al., 2009). • Course design is considered more important than the medium for student achievement and retention (Bernard et al. 2004). There is a shift from questioning outcomes to discussing the ways to enhance and maintain effectiveness of e-learning.

36. Educational Attainment Student and Teacher Acceptance and Perceptions of Quality: • Student attitudes to e-learning is affected by perceived self-efficacy, the quality of multimedia instruction and the need for better interactivity and communicative functions (Liaw 2008) • Perceived added value of the technology and its ease of use are the predictors of actual use of e-learning tools by teachers (Mahdizadeh et al., 2008) • Perception of quality can be a considerable barrier to adoption and long-term implementation of e-learning practices (Collis and Moonen 2008). Differences in perceptions by teachers and students Long term and consistent studies should incorporate cultural variables for greater informing sustainable quality practices.

37. Educational Attainment Student Retention and Performance • Student satisfaction with e-learning is a key to retention. Academic, IT or language skills are also important (Levy 2007). • Student engagement is an important factor for retention (Boyle et al 2003). • Strategies for improvement of achievement and reduction in costs are demonstrated to be possible (Nicol and Draper 2009b) Little is known about the role of e-learning in affecting student retention (Krause and McEwen 2009).

38. Educational Attainment New Technologies and Usability: Usability of new technologies is an important factor in their adoption and use. • Strong factors may include instructor characteristics and teaching materials intention of using e-learning (Lee et al. 2009). • Mobile learning and podcasting provide a potential for sustainable e-learning practice (Kukulska-Hulme et al., 2009;). Further research into the long-term use and effects of new technologies. New technologies are not always applied in ways to support effective learning

39. Professional Development and Innovation Commitment to continuous progress and efforts to adapt to the requirements of the ever-changing environment Improvement may be affected by factors such as: • Institutional policies • Administrative constraints • Need for training

40. Professional Development and Innovation Policy and Evolutionary/Revolutionary Change: • E-learning policy has an important role in driving change in educational institutions (De Freitas and Oliver 2005). • Successful organisations need to master a skill for spotting the time and need for radical changes (Tushman and O’Reilly 2006) • Management of technological change does not reflect the speed of technological progress (Conole 2010) • The task of linking e-learning policy to practice is not trivial (Conole 2010)

41. Professional Development and Innovation Sustainable Educational Leadership: • A coordinated approach enabled considerable uptake in the use of e-learning and more sustainable practice (Sharpe et al. 2006). • Communicating clear implementation goals and being transparent is important (Sloep et al. 2006) • More rounded views are needed to avoid quick political wins and move towards sustainability (Hargreaves 2007). • Collaborative leadership that includes cooperation among the leaders at various levels is needed (Garrison and Akyol 2009)

42. Professional Development and Innovation Communities of Practice (CoP) and Professional Networks: • CoPs can contribute to professional growth and instructional transformation. • Teachers may benefit from joining or developing CoPs. • Networks are more diverse and less cohesive in nature. • Social network platforms can be used for learning purposes in Higher Education Brouns (et al. in press) • There are potential benefits to analysing and understanding networks (Klamma 2010).

43. Professional Development and Innovation Teacher Development and Training: • There is a need for comprehensive faculty development and support programmes that encourage active practice and reflection (Lefoe et al. 2009). • Successful mechanisms for encouraging teacher reflection are being developed (Donald et al. 2009) Long-term effects of institutional programmes require further research and standardised measures for evaluations.

44. Discussion and Conclusion This scoping review explored a broad pool of empirical literature. The key observation of this study is: the current state of sustainable e-learning research is too narrow to enable the development of a coherent body of knowledge that explains complex interrelations across various factors of sustainability. Individual studies excessively focus on some aspects of sustainability and exclude others. Suggested action: development of more comprehensive conceptual approaches for guiding research on sustainable e-learning.

45. Discussion and Conclusion Direct implications of developing a more comprehensive and common guidelines include: • greater potential for synthesis and generalisation. • more carefully crafted definition of sustainable e-learning for adding further integrity to the research area • deeper understanding of the factors and their inter-relations.

46. Discussion and Conclusion Indirect implications of developing a more comprehensive and common guidelines include: • greater potential for contributing to social, political and philosophical aspects of education. • greater potential to informing the process of adapting to cultural and societal changes driven by technological development. • greater potential for bridging the debate of sustainable e-learning practice with that of environmental sustainability and resilient education.

47. Discussion and Conclusion Nevertheless, the value of the less inclusive studies should not be underestimated. Resource Management: • A blueprint of transformation change (Nicol et al., 2007) reported reducing teacher workload and improving student achievement and satisfaction. • Considerable savings reported by Lück and Laurence (2005) when substituting guest-lectures with videoconferencing. Educational Attainment: • Meta-analysis (Means et al., 2009) reported benefits when adopting certain teaching approaches (e.g. providing greater control of the media to students) Professional Development: • A potential for using social network platforms for staff development is reported by Sloep (in press).

48. Discussion and Conclusion Other General Observations: • there are relatively few studies that combine and synthesise empirical work despite methodological affordances of meta-analysis or systematic reviews. Long-term studies, action research or design-based research are not frequently employed. • there is limited research that addresses the tensions (trade-offs, priorities)between the concepts of cost-efficiency, effective pedagogy, and continuous innovative practice.

49. Discussion and Conclusion Other General Observations: • There is a potential but more research is needed to inform sustainable e-learning looking at: • Networks and collectives and greater understanding of their dynamics • OER movement that is seeking novel business models • Mobile learning in formal education

50. Discussion and Conclusion More Specific Knowledge Gaps Include: • meta-analysis of e-learning costs and lack of available data • empirical research on economies of scope • long-term longitudinal analysis on the effects of reducing costs • empirical research on cost-effectiveness of OER. • student/teacher mindset towards e-learning and its change • improvement of learning outcomes and retention rates without substantial increases in costs • benefits of employing new technologies such as mobile devices or podcasting. • long-term analysis of leadership impact on change • long-term analysis of faculty-development on change