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Chapter 3

Chapter 3. The Relational Model. Chapter 3 - Objectives. The origins of the relational model. The terminology associated with the relational model. How tables are used to represent data. The connection between mathematical relations and relations in the relational model.

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Chapter 3

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  1. Chapter 3 The Relational Model

  2. Chapter 3 - Objectives • The origins of the relational model. • The terminology associated with the relational model. • How tables are used to represent data. • The connection between mathematical relations and relations in the relational model. • Properties of database relations. • How to identify candidate, primary, and foreign keys. • The meaning of entity integrity and referential integrity. • The categories of relational Data Manipulation Languages (DMLs). • How to form queries in relational algebra. • How relational calculus queries are expressed. • The purpose and advantages of views in relational systems. • Criteria for the evaluation of relational database management systems. 3

  3. Terminology • A relation is a table with columns and rows. • The user perceives the database structure as consisting of tables. This only really applies to the logical structure (external and conceptual levels) of the database, not necessarily the physical structure. • An attribute is a named column of a relation. • The domain is a set of allowable values for one or more attributes. 2

  4. Relational Model Terminology • A tuple is a row of a relation. • The degree is the number of attributes in a relation. • Cardinality is the number of tuples in a relation. • A Relational Database is a collection of normalized relations. 9

  5. Instances of Branch and Staff (part) Relations 6

  6. Examples of Attribute Domains 7

  7. Alternative Terminology for Components of the Relational Model 10

  8. Mathematical Relations • A mathematical definition of a relation • Consider two sets, D1 and D2, where D1 = {2, 4} and D2 = {1, 3, 5}. • The Cartesian product is D1D2, which is the set of all ordered pairs. The first element is a member of D1 and the second element is a member of D2. • An alternative method is to find all combinations of elements with the first element from D1 and the second from D2. • D1D2 = {(2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 5), (4, 1), (4, 3), (4, 5)} 11

  9. Mathematical Relation • Any subset of a Cartesian product is a relation. For example: R = {(2, 1), (4, 1)} • We may specify which pairs are in a relation using some condition for making a selection. For example, the second element should be 1 R = {(x, y) | x D1, y D2, and y = 1} 12

  10. Mathematical Relations • We can use mathematical constructs to evaluate the components of a relation • Identify another relation, S, where the first element is always twice the second. S = {(x, y) | x  D1, y  D2, and x = 2y} • Only one ordered pair in the Cartesian Product satisfies this condition. S = {(2, 1)} 13

  11. Mathematical Relations • Consider three sets D1, D2, and D3 with Cartesian Product D1D2D3. For example D1 = {1, 3} D2 = {2, 4} D3 = {5, 6} D1D2D3 = {(1,2,5), (1,2,6), (1,4,5), (1,4,6), (3,2,5), (3,2,6), (3,4,5), (3,4,6)} • Any subset of these ordered triples is a relation. 14

  12. Properties of Relations • A Relation’s name is distinct from all other relations. • Each cell of a relation contains exactly one atomic (single) value. • Each attribute has a distinct name. • Values of an attribute are all from the same domain. • Order of attributes has no significance. • Each tuple is distinct; there are no duplicate tuples. • Order of tuples has no significance, theoretically. 16

  13. Relational Keys • Superkey • An attribute or a set of attributes that uniquely identifies a tuple within a relation. 18

  14. Relational Keys • Candidate Key • A superkey (K) such that no proper subset is a superkey within the relation. • In each tuple of R, the values of K uniquely identify that tuple (uniqueness). • No proper subset of K has the uniqueness property (irreducicility). 19

  15. Relational Keys • Primary Key • The candidate key that is selected to identify tuples uniquely within a relation. • Alternate Keys • Candidate keys that are not selected to be the primary key. • Secondary Key(s) • An attribute (or combination of attributes) used strictly for retrieval purposes • I recently called AT&T about my “True Rewards” membership, they asked for my membership number. ???? I could tell them my telephone number. 20

  16. Relational Keys • Foreign Key • An attribute or set of attributes within one relation that matches the candidate key of some (possibly the same) relation. 21

  17. Relational Integrity • Null • Represents a value for an attribute that is currently unknown or is not applicable for this tuple. • Deals with incomplete or exceptional data. • Null represents the absence of a value and is not the same as zero or spaces, which are values. 22

  18. Relational Integrity • Entity Integrity: • In a base relation, no attribute of a primary key can be null. • Referential Integrity • If a foreign key exists in a relation, either the foreign key value must match a candidate key value of some tuple in its home relation or the foreign key value must be wholly null. • Domain Constraints • All values appearing in a column must be taken from the same domain. • Enterprise or Business Constraints • Additional rules specified by policies, users, or database administrators. 23

  19. Instances of Branch and Staff (part) Relations 6

  20. Relational Algebra • Relational algebra operations work on one or more relations to define another relation without changing the original relations. • Thus, both operands and results are relations, so output from one operation can become input to another operation. • This allows expressions to be nested, just as in arithmetic. • This property of relational algebra is called closure. 25

  21. Relational Algebra • There are 5 basic operations in relational algebra: • Selection • Projection • Cartesian Product • Union • Set Difference. • These enable most of the data retrieval operations needed in a DBMS. • There are also Join, Intersection, and Division operations that can be expressed in terms of the 5 basic operations. 26

  22. Relational Algebra Operations 27

  23. Relational Algebra Operations 28

  24. Selection (or Restriction) • predicate (R) • Selection operation works on a single relation R and defines a relation that contains only those tuples (rows) of R that satisfy the specified condition (predicate). 29

  25. Example: Selection (or Restriction) • List all staff with a salary greater than 10,000. salary > 10000 (Staff) 30

  26. Projection • col1, . . . , coln(R) • Projection operation works on a single relation R and defines a relation that contains a vertical subset of R, extracting the values of specified attributes and eliminating duplicates. 31

  27. Example - Projection • Produce a list of salaries for all staff, showing only the Sno, FName, LName, and Salary details. sno, fname, lname, salary(Staff) 32

  28. Cartesian Product • R X S • The Cartesian product operation defines a relation that is the concatenation of every tuple of relation R with every tuple of relation S. • In simple terms, it produces a list of all possible pairs of rows that results from appending attributes from one table to the other. • If one table has 10 rows, and the second has 20 rows, then the resulting table will have 200 rows. 33

  29. Example - Cartesian Product • List the names and comments of all renters who have viewed a property. (rno, fname, lname(Renter)) X (rno, pno,comment (Viewing)) 34

  30. Example - Cartesian Product and Selection • Use selection operation to extract those tuples where Renter.Rno = Viewing.Rno. renter.rno = viewing.rno((rno,fname,lname(Renter))(rno,pno,comment(Viewing))) • Cartesian product and Selection can be reduced to a single operation called a join. 35

  31. Union • R  S • Union of two relations R and S with I and J tuples, respectively, is obtained by concatenating them into one relation with a maximum of (I + J) tuples, duplicate tuples being eliminated. • In simple terms, all rows from two tables are combined. • The rule is that all attributed involved in the union must have the same structure (i.e., they are union compatible) 36

  32. Example - Union • Construct a list of all areas where there is either a branch or a property. area(Branch) area (Property_for_Rent) 37

  33. Intersect • Produces a table that contains only the rows that appear in both of the original tables. • In simple terms, only rows that are common to both tables show up in the results. • Both tables must be union compatible 37

  34. Set Difference • R – S • The set difference operation defines a relation consisting of the tuples that are in relation R, but not in S. R and S must be union-compatible. • In simple terms, only rows that are found in one table and NOT the other will be present in the results. • Both tables must be union compatible 38

  35. Example - Set Difference • Construct a list of all cities where there is a branch office but no properties. city (Branch) – city (Property_for_Rent) 39

  36. Join Operations • The Join is a derivative of the Cartesian product. • A join is equivalent to performing a selection, using the join predicate as the selection formula, over the Cartesian product of the two operand relations. • Joins are one of the most difficult operations to implement efficiently in a relational DBMS and one of the reasons why relational systems have intrinsic performance problems. 40

  37. Join Operations • There are various forms of join operation • Theta-join • Equi-join (a particular type of theta-join) • Natural join • Outer join • Semi-join 41

  38. Theta-join (-join) • R FS • Defines a relation that contains tuples satisfying the predicate F from the Cartesian product of R and S. • The predicate F is of the form R.ai S.bi where  may be one of the comparison operators (<, < =, >, > =, =, ~ =). • In simple terms, a theta join occurs anytime that any type of comparison operator is used. 42

  39. Theta-join (-join) • We can rewrite the theta-join in terms of the basic Selection and Cartesian product operations. R FS = F(R  S) • Degree of a theta-join is sum of the degrees of the operand relations R and S. If predicate F contains only equality (=), the term equi-join is used. 43

  40. Example - Equi-join • List the names and comments of all renters who have viewed a property.(rno,fname,lname(Renter))renter.rno = viewing.rno ( rno,pno,comment(Viewing)) 44

  41. Natural Join • R S • Natural join is an equi-join of the two relations R and S over all common attributes x. One occurrence of each common attribute is eliminated from the result. • In simple terms, a natural join links tables by selecting only the rows with common values in their common attribute(s). 45

  42. Example - Natural Join • List the names and comments of all renters who have viewed a property. (rno,fname,lname (Renter)) (rno,pno,comment(Viewing)) 46

  43. Outer Join • Often in joining two relations, there is no matching value in the join columns. To display rows in the result that do not have matching values in the join column, we use the outer join. • R S • The (left) outer join is a join in which tuples from R that do not have matching values in the common columns of S are also included in the result relation. 47

  44. Example - Left Outer Join • Produce a status report on property viewings. pno,street,city (Property_for_Rent) Viewing 48

  45. Semi-join • R FS • The semi-join operation defines a relation that contains the tuples of R that participate in the join of R with S. 49

  46. Example - Semi-join • List complete details of all staff who work at the branch in Partick. 50

  47. Intersection • R  S • The intersection operation consists of the set of all tuples that are in both R and S. • R and S must be union-compatible. • Expressed using basic operations R  S = R – (R – S) 51

  48. Division • R  S • The division operation consists of the set of tuples from R defined over the attributes C that match the combination of every tuple in S. • Expressed using basic operations T1 = C(R) T2 = C((S X T1) – R) T = T1 – T2 52

  49. Example - Division • Identify all renters who have viewed all properties with three rooms. (rno,pno (Viewing))  (pno (rooms = 3 (Property_for_Rent))) 53

  50. Relational Calculus • A relational calculus query specifies what is to be retrieved rather than how to retrieve it. • There is no description of how to evaluate a query. • It is based on a branch of symbolic logic called predicate calculus. • When applied to databases, relational calculus is in two forms: • tuple-oriented • domain-oriented. 54

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