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Comments on Writing

Comments on Writing. Why What How Who Style. Technical Writing - Why. Main Idea: Effective engineers know how to communicate. They write accurate, brief, and clear prose. 800-1000 pages/year. Writing in technical work: Type of Work Percentage of Time 1. Collection and

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Comments on Writing

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  1. Comments on Writing • Why • What • How • Who • Style

  2. Technical Writing - Why • Main Idea: • Effective engineers know how to communicate. • They write accurate, brief, and clear prose. • 800-1000 pages/year. • Writing in technical work: Type of Work Percentageof Time 1. Collection and correlation of data 26 2. Calculations 34 3. Writing reports and letters 20 4. Selling results of their work 12 5. Other (literature reviews, 8 attendance at meetings, consulting with others) Note: 4 & 5 are oral communication skills

  3. Technical Writing - What • Most technical writing done by engineers falls into one of these categories: • Business letters: Formal correspondence between you and someone else • Memorandums: Informal correspondence, often internal to your organization (email has replaced formal memorandums in recent years) • Proposals Formal document requesting something from someone • Reports Formal document detailing the results of your activities • Variations on these

  4. Technical Writing - How • Know your audience and write to them. • Make a conscious effort to do a good job: • Be aware of the rules of good writing. • Use acceptable style. • Use acceptable formats. • Edit your work. • Read good writing (top newspapers, IEEE, ACM, ASME journals). • Use your resources: • William Strunk and E. B. White's The Elements of Style. • Technical Communication Journals: IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, Technical Communication • Dictionary, Thesaurus, etc.

  5. Audience Analysis • Before you begin, know your audience: A. Their background: 1. Education. 2. Experience level. B. Their purpose: 1. What do they hope to learn? 2. What do they intend to do with that knowledge? • Categories of audiences: 1. Laymen. 2. Executives. 3. Experts. 4. Technicians. 5. Combined Audiences. • Note that the audience category is defined relative to the topic.

  6. Writing to the Audience 1. Scientist: "The moment of force about any specified axis is...” 2. Engineer: "To lift a heavy weight with a lever, a man should...” 3. Technician: "Shove the brick up snug under the crowbar...” 4. Executive: "Why let your men kill themselves heaving those boxes all day long? The job's easy with this new long-handled pinch bar. With today's high wages you'll save the cost the first afternoon."

  7. Audience Analysis: Laymen • Laymen: • Anyone reading outside his/her own specialized field. • Non-experts reading for interest as a prelude to action. • Prefer "what" to "how"; like drama. • Read well, bright, interested in science & tech. • Have had some math and science but are a little vague on both. • High school education. • How to write for laymen: 1. Give BACKGROUND material. 2. Use ANALOGY. 3. DEFINE specialized words. 4. Keep it SIMPLE (Use simple substitutes for specialized terms.Use plain language for math.Use short sentences and paragraphs and s-v-o order). 5. Add HUMAN INTEREST. 6. Use ILLUSTRATIONS (Bar charts for equations & formulas. Combine tables and pictographs).

  8. Audience Analysis: Executives - 1 • Who are they: • Have college degrees in various disciplines. • May have little knowledge in your field • Have practical concerns. • Want to know what things do as opposed to how they work. • Uses report to make decisions. • Westinghouse Executives' Reading Habits Summary 100% Introduction 60% Conclusions 50% Body 15% Appendix 10% • Organize your report around these reading habits.

  9. Audience Analysis: Executives - 2 How to write for executives 1. Give technical background. 2. Use and define important terms. 3. Use plain language. 4. Avoid mathematics. 5. Use simple illustrations - bar graphs, pie charts, pictographs. 6. Answer their questions on cost, people, aesthetics. a. Put function (action) first. b. Be honest, using qualifiers. c. Give conclusions, recommendations, implications. d. Make details available. Checklist for writing for executives 1. State purpose. 2. Give background. 3. Explain alternatives considered. 4. Isolate and support alternatives selected. 5. Describe next action to be taken or recommended.

  10. Audience Analysis - Experts • Experts: senior engineers, professors, researchers. • Seldom need background. • Know their fields intimately. • Concerned with how and why. • Want calculations, results, observations, facts. • Uses report to guide executive and/or implement a decision. • Require details. • How to Write for Experts: 1. Use shorthand methods - abbreviations, equations, formulas, scientific terms, tables, drawings, line graphs, maps and photographs of unusual equipment. 2. Define terms only if used in new or unusual way. 3. Define abbreviations and symbols only if they are not standard. 4. Give facts, calculations, inferences, conclusions. 5. Distinguish between certainty and doubt, relying on scientific honesty and caution, using qualifiers where appropriate.

  11. Audience Analysis: Technicians • Technicians: • Intensely practical. • Education varies from high school to B.S. degree. • Build, maintain, use equipment • Uses report to learn how to do a task. • How to Write for Technicians: 1. Supply some background and definitions. 2. Give some theory. 3. Put most of the math in graph form. 4. Put equations in appendix. 5. Use analogy. 6. Keep sentences short and specific.

  12. Technical Writing : Style - 1 • Which one was written by an engineer: (1) "in a shaft of yellow sunlight, a white-flowering begonia in a red clay pot” (2) "a twelve-inch begonia propagated from a three-inch cutting; age, 42 days.” • Writing styles differ between disciplines. • But, within disciplines there is good and bad writing: "...Kindly advise if your information gives confirmation to the conclusions outlined within.” “The hitting of the line is all activity engaged in by a player acting in the capacity of the fullback.”

  13. Technical Writing: Style - 2 • Technical Writing : 1. Scientific subject. 2. Scientific attitude (impartial, accurate, concise, clear). 3. Specific audience. 4. Formal elements (memos, abstracts, proposals, manuals). 5. Special techniques (definitions, descriptions of mechanisms, processes, classification, interpretation). 6. No passive voice: e.g., The man was fired. e.g., It was observed that. • Three Criteria in Technical Writing: 1. Accuracy 2. Brevity 3. Clarity

  14. Accuracy Accuracy in writing is essential. Areas that require special attention are: • Laboratory work. • Calculations. • Literature reviews. • Objective examination of all data: • the truth. • the whole truth. • nothing but the truth. • Deductive paragraphing (supporting generalizations with facts). • Precise use of language. E.g., affect/effect that/which imply/infer do/due to/too

  15. Brevity - 1 • Use the least possible number of words to say what you mean gracefully. • Page charges. • Courtesy to reader. • Vigor. • Examples: 1. orientate = orient 2. comparatively brief period of time = quickly 3. most grateful = grateful 7. At the present time, we are in the process of accepting applications from interested individuals for the position of senior accountant. We are accepting applications for senior accountant. 8. The purpose of this form is to solicit beneficial comments which will help achieve procurement of suitable forms. Please evaluate this form. Is it suitable?

  16. Brevity - 2 • TIME WORDS • The operator has the unused time of ten minutes for checking the incoming lines. • This report describes work done during the period from March 1965 to March 1966. • Other Time Words: • period of • duration of • interval • at this time • in the future

  17. Brevity - 3 • QUANTITY WORDS • We burned out a total of twelve lamps. • The films grew at a rate of ten angstroms per second. The display is 6x6 feet in size. • Other Quantity Words: • level • at a point • amount of • in shape • in the direction

  18. Brevity - 4 • ACTIVITY WORDS • The boiling action continued. • Finish the cost analysis effort before you submit the proposal. In operation our computer is faster. • It is used for fuel purposes. • The search function can be performed rapidly. • Other Activity Words: • work in • applications • procedure • OBJECT WORDS • Turn on the transmitter unit. • This section explains how to apply power to the radio equipment. • The latching mechanism had broken.

  19. Brevity - 5 • ACTUALITY WORDS • Our existing strain gauge is worthless for this test. • The primary radar detects the presence of moving targets. • Our department will finish the actual design of the prototype this week. • PROPRIETY WORDS • To properly align the ... • The electrodes are suitably treated to ... • The drawings support the associated text. • EMPHASIS WORDS • A very precise chronometer. • Inspect all the braces on the damaged side. • The circuit that follows must have a great many diodes. The design allows for overall system growth. • Other Emphasis Words: • highly • any • some

  20. Brevity - 6 • TYPE WORDS • The coil is mounted on a hinged-type panel. • The book was of a technical nature. • He has been working in the area of reliability analysis. • The light changes to the green condition. • ATTENTION GETTERS • In order to start the motor, push the red button. • However, keep in mind the fact that diode CR4 was added in order to keep the input from exceeding the limit of Q14. • Other Attention Getters: • the point • the results of • in all cases • the reason for • purposes of

  21. Clarity - 1 • Clarity = transferring with ease exactly what's in your head to your reader's head so he/she understands what you mean and doesn't have to guess at your message. • Reasons for lack of clarity 1. Jargon 2. Passive voice 3. Complex subject matter 4. Limited use of examples 5. Reader often less knowledgeable than writer 6. Omission of general writing tools - bright adjectives, humor, figurative language, anecdotes. • The "Grandmother Principle:" • The first page of every chapter, • the first paragraph of every section, and • the first sentence of every paragraph • should be comprehensible to your grandmother.

  22. Clarity - 2 • Tips for Clear Writing 1. Keep subjects, verbs, objects, and complements close together. 2. Maintain an average sentence length of less than 20 words. 3. Prefer the active voice. 4. Eliminate the indefinite "this." 5. Simplify verb tenses. 6. Ensure that all paragraphs have clear topic sentences. 7. Avoid "this is" and "there are" constructions.

  23. Clarity - 3 • Some Suggestions on Style 1. Eliminate redundancies. (final results = results; true facts = facts) 2. Deflate inflated expressions, using one word when it will do. 3. Avoid bureaucratese like apprised, implement, utilization. 4. Reject meaningless phrases it is interesting to note that = note that it was noted by Jones that = Jones noted 5. Use active verbs. it has been observed that there is corrosive action in the pipes = the pipes corroded 6. Be positive. did not recall = forgot; not useful = useless; It is not unlikely that there will be many occurrences of this strain = This strain will probably occur frequently

  24. Clarity - 4 7. Use active voice. surprising results were given by the three tests = The three tests gave surprising results 8. Be specific. The cost must not be prohibitive = The cost should not exceed $2.00 per gallon 9. Use simple words. When you have to use complex words, define them. compensation = pay; conflagration = fire; veracious = true 10. Judiciously use first person point of view in technical reports when you want to record your own actions. It was observed by this experimenter that = I saw 11. Keep your sentences short and their structure simple. Remarkable was the performance of this machine = The machine performed well

  25. Clarity - 5 Some Suggestions on Style 12. Organize your paragraphs so that the topic sentence comes first. 13. Connect paragraphs with appropriate transitions. 14. Organize your reports logically to suit your reader; e.g., start with a summary and save details for the appendix. 15. Occasionally use lists to break down complex ideas. 16. Read your writing aloud so it sounds natural, not artificial. 17. Read good prose and Strunk and White's The Elements of Style often.

  26. Active vs. Passive Voice - 1 N-V-O O "was" V "by" N • The active voice shows the subject performing the action. • The passive voice shows the subject receiving the action. • Active: The eminent scientists conducted the test. • Passive: The test was conducted by two eminent scientists. • Passive is: • longer , • often inanimate, and • syntactical flow is reversed. • Use passive with a reason: • when the performer of the act is unknown or relatively unimportant, • when the object of the act is the important concept and should function as the subject, for transition.

  27. Active vs. Passive Voice - 2 • It has been our contention that the line workers can make a significant contribution to the decision making process. - We contend that line workers can contribute significantly to the decision making process. • Consequently, it is one that deserves the attention of all those who are in a position to improve the crew's ability to tackle this problem. - Consequently, the problem deserves the attention of those in a position to improve the crew's ability to tackle it. • The fasteners all showed signs of hydrogen embrittlement which causes high local stress concentrations which resulted in the failure of the fasteners. - The fasteners failed because of high local stress caused by hydrogen embrittlement. • As a result of tests which have been completed.... - As a result of completed tests....

  28. Editing Hints - 1 To EDIT for • ACCURACY 1. Rely on intuition. When you backtrack, suspect inaccuracy. 2. Consult Strunk/White. 3. Attune self to good prose. • BREVITY 1. Question every word. Keep only necessary words (strong nouns & verbs, articles) 2. Watch out for qualifiers, adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, relative clauses, the obvious. • CLARITY 1. Reduce each sentence to Noun + Verb + Object

  29. Editing Hints - 2 EDITING HINTS 1. Does each paragraph have a controlling idea? 2. Is the main idea supported by concrete detail? 3. Do connective words hold the paragraph together? 4. Do you use strong nouns and verbs? 5. Are the passive constructions necessary? 6. Are the compound sentences necessary? 7. Can you reduce clauses to phrases and phrases to a word? 8. Are all "it...that" constructions and all "which" clauses necessary? 9. Circle every "it," "that," and "this." Can you draw an arrow to every antecedent? 10. Identify every introductory participial phrase ("By using...," "having completed...,") and then check the first noun in the next clause. Is that noun the source of the action?

  30. Editing Hints - 3(from Lee Robinson) 1. Get something down on paper. 2. In editing start with large scale, work down to sentence, word level. 2. Global Revision: Purpose, Audience, Organization Paragraph Unity (repetition, useless material) 3. Revision at Paragraph Level: Unity, Development, Order, Coherence 4. Revision at Sentence Level: Thinking, Clarity, Awkwardness Communication 5. Revision at Word level: Sexist language, Grammar and Mechanics Use of Technical Terms Pompous Language and jargon Inflammatory Language

  31. Editing Hints - 4(from Lee Robinson) • CHECKLIST FOR ILLUSTRATIONS 1. Evaluate the nature of your audience 2. Every illustration and table requires a caption and text reference 3. Make the illustration neat and orderly with clearly readable print 4. Keep fonts and lettering clear and simple 5. Place no more information on a graph than is absolutely necessary • TECHNICAL WRITING AND THE COMPUTER • What computers can't do: 1. Supply substance. 2. Supply expertise. 3. Improve communication. 4. Proof read documents. • How computers help: 1. Eliminate drudgery. 2. Limited editing aids: Spell checker, Thesaurus, Style checkers. 3. Cut and paste. 4. Improve illustrations. 5. Improve readability.

  32. Some Personal Hang-ups - 1(from Kevin Moore) • ALWAYS READ WHAT YOU HAVE WRITTEN BEFORE ASKING YOUR BOSS TO READ IT!!! • All figures and tables and appendices should be referenced in the text. • All figures and tables should come after the first reference to it in the text. • Figure captions are punctuated like sentences, at the bottom of the figure. (a) (b) Fig 1.2: ODIS sensor layout; (a) IR sensor locations; (b) sonar sensor locations. Figure 1.2 ODIS Sensor Layout YES NO

  33. Some Personal Hang-ups - 2(from Kevin Moore) • Table captions are punctuated like titles (all caps, no periods) and appear at the top the table. • Equations should be punctuated as of they were being read out loud. If is any function of , then , where are the state variables and all uncertainties are assumed to be independent. • Never say “… where, …” instead say “…., where ….” • BE CONSISTENT!!

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