AD643

1. AD643 Project Communications Management Class Five Boston University - Metropolitan College Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

2. Leadership Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

3. AD643 Leadership Search The PMBOK V4 BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

4. Lead • Lead - The process of influencing others to achieve individual, group or organizational goals. • Leading involves getting others to perform the necessary tasks by motivating them to achieve the organization’s goals. • Motivation is a psychological state that exists whenever internal and/or external forces stimulate, direct, or maintain behaviors. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

5. Leadership • Leadership is influence held over a group or individual. This influence is used to move this group or individual toward the attainment of a goal or objective.. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

6. Project Leadership • Project Leadership is influence held over a group or individual Project Stakeholders. This influence is used to move this group or individual toward the attainment of the goals and/or objectives of the project. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

7. Who Makes the Best Leader • We must identify leadership potential: • It is a required element in a manager • Succession Planning • How do we identify Leaders • This question was one of the first put to the emerging field of Management Science • In order for us to see what the fruit of MS’s labor it will be necessary for you to participate in a little exercise we have for you. • Secure your area • Have a pencil and paper handy Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

8. AD643 Leadership Points of Note  BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE Definition: Leadership is influence held over a group or individual. This influence is used to move this group or individual toward the attainment of a goal or objective. Three Major Groupings of Research Study of Traits: Research identified the following five traits as showing a consistent position correlation with Leadership: Intelligence Dominance Self-Confidence High Energy Level Task Relevant Knowledge It should be noted that research may be interpreted to mean that these traits are not Definite Predictors of Leadership. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

9. Trait Model Identified personal characteristics that, when present in a leader will cause effective leadership. Intelligence Dominance Self-Confidence High Energy Level Task Relevant Knowledge * This list is in order of number of times that surveys reported this trait as required. Research shows that certain personal “traits” do appear to be connected to effective leadership. Many “traits” are the result of skills and knowledge and effective leaders do not necessarily possess all of these traits. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

10. AD643 Leadership Points of Note  BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE Definition: Leadership is influence held over a group or individual. This influence is used to to move this group or individual toward the attainment of a goal or objective. Three Major Groupings of Research Behavioral Tendencies: Focused on the study of leadership behaviors. Ohio State Studies: Initiating Structure - (Setting & Meeting Deadlines, Employee Standards, etc.) Consideration - (Leader/Subordinate relationships, trust, respect) Univ. of Michigan: Grouped Leaders (Managers) into two Groups, Employee and Production Oriented Blake & Mouton: Management Grid (Concern for People, Concern for Production) Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

11. Leadership Models • Behavioral Model • Identifies the two basic types of behavior that many leaders engaged in to influence their subordinates: • Consideration: employee-centered leadership behavior indicating that a manager trusts, respects, and cares about subordinates • Initiating structure: job-oriented leadership behavior that managers engage in to ensure that work gets done, subordinates perform their jobs acceptably, and the organization is efficient and effective. • Both behaviors are independent; managers can be high or low on both behaviors. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

12. Leadership Behaviors (cont.) • Robert Blake and Jane Mouton developed the managerial grid. The managerial grid is more complex and identifies five leadership styles that combine different degrees of concern for production and concern for people. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

13. The Managerial Grid Model High Country club style Team style Middle- of-the- road style Concern for people Impoverished style Produce or perish style Low Low High Concern for production Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

14. AD643 Leadership Points of Note  BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE Definition: Leadership is influence held over a group or individual. This influence is used to move this group or individual toward the attainment of a goal or objective. Three Major Groupings of Research Contingency Theories: Overlays the Situation to Determination of Leadership Effectiveness Autocratic - Democratic Continuum Model: Behaviors are viewed as extremes on a continuum with differing leadership styles in between. Styles are dependent on the leader's tendencies (traits), the operating group and the situation. Fielder Model: Effective group performance depends on the proper match between the leader's style of interacting with her/his subordinates and the degree to which the situation controls or influences the leader. Leader - Participation Model: Vroom and Yetton, subordinate participation in the decision making process enhances the degree of successful leadership. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

15. Contingency Models of Leadership • Fiedler’s Model • Effective leadership is contingent on both the characteristics of the leader and of the situation. • Leader style is the enduring, characteristic approach to leadership that a manager uses and does not readily change. • Relationship-oriented style: leaders concerned with developing good relations with their subordinates and to be liked by them. • Task-oriented style: leaders whose primary concern is to ensure that subordinates perform at a high level so the job gets done. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

16. Fiedler’s Model • Situation Characteristics • How favorable a situation is for leading to occur. • Leader-member relations—determines how much workers like and trust their leader. • Task structure—the extent to which workers tasks are clear-cut; clear issues make a situation favorable for leadership. • Position Power—the amount of legitimate, reward, and coercive power leaders have due to their position. When positional power is strong, leadership opportunity becomes more favorable. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

17. Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership Figure 13.2 Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

18. Fiedler’s Model in Application • Combines considerations of leader-member relations, task structure, and position power to identify leadership situations. • Identifies situations where given types of managers might perform best. • Leader style is a characteristic managers cannot change; managers will be most effective when: • they are placed in situations that suit their leader style. • the situation can be changed to fit the manager’s leader style. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

19. Gender and Leadership • The number of women managers is rising but is still relatively low in the top levels of management. • Stereotypes suggest women are supportive and concerned with interpersonal relations. Similarly, men are seen as task-focused. • Research indicates that actually there is no gender-based difference in leadership effectiveness. • Women are seen to be more participative than men because they adopt the participative approach to overcome subordinate resistance to them as managers and they have better interpersonal skills. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

20. Motivation Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

21. Understanding Motivation • Motivation is a psychological state that exists whenever internal and/or external forces stimulate, direct, or maintain behaviors. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

22. AD643 Motivation Points of Note Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: A person's needs are arranged in order of priority. Once a need is met, the next higher on the list becomes the priority and motivation. Two bottom needs are considered lower-order needs and the three top needs constitute the higher order. Lower order needs are satisfied externally (Example: wages, union contracts, tenure) Higher order needs are satisfied internally (Affection, self respect, self-fulfillment) SELF _ACTUALIZATION_ ________ESTEEM________ _____________SOCIAL____________ ________________________SAFETY_______________________ _____________________________PHYSIOLOGICAL_________________________ 1. Physiological - Hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and other bodily needs. 2. Safety - Protection from emotional and physical harm. 3. Social - Affection, sense of belonging, acceptance and friendship. 4. Esteem - Self respect, autonomy, status, recognition and attention. 5. Self Actualization - Growth, achieving one's potential and self fulfillment. “Old School” – But Important BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

23. Individual Differences Approach • A need is a strong feeling of deficiency in some aspect of a person’s life that creates an uncomfortable tension. • Hierarchy of needs describes the order in which people seek to satisfy their desires. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

24. Moving up and Down the Needs Hierarchy Frustration-Regression Satisfaction-Progression Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

25. AD643 Motivation Points of Note Theory X and Y: Douglas McGregor's work proposed that managers grouped employees based on two distinctly different sets of theories. They then molded their behaviors toward employees accordingly. Theory X 1. Employees inherently dislike work and will attempt to avoid it. 2. Employees must be forced, coerced and controlled in order to achieve goals. 3. Employees dislike responsibility and will avoid it. 4. Employees place security above all other factors and will display little ambition. These are lower order needs and satisfied accordingly (Contracts, tenure and wages) Theory Y 1. Employees see work as being as natural as rest or play. 2. Self direction and self control are exercised by employees who feel committed to objectives. 3. Average employees can learn to accept (or seek) responsibility. 4. The ability to make good decisions is distributed throughout the population and not just within management Adoption leads to programs such as shared decision making, more responsible & challenging jobs, etc. No hard evidence that either are correct. Assumptions can be correct in particular situations. “Old School” – But Important BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

26. Leadership Behaviors • Douglas McGregor coined the labels Theory X and Theory Y to contrast the beliefs of leaders as to what motivates their subordinates. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

27. Theory X Employees dislike work and will try to avoid it if possible. Employees want and need direction. Employees do not want to participate in setting/achieving goals Theory Y Employees like to work and achieve something. Employees want self-direction and work toward the company’s objectives. Employees are eager to take on responsibilities at work. Assumptions Associated with Theory X and Theory Y Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

28. AD643 Motivation Points of Note Hygiene Theory: Frederick Herzberg proposed that the factors leading to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Managers who remove factors that create job dissatisfaction are causing peace not motivation. Hygiene factors - Dissatisfiers Company Policy & Administration Supervision Interpersonal Relationships Working Conditions Salary (in this order). When employees believe these are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied, neither will they be motivated. Motivators - Satisfiers Achievement Recognition Work Itself Responsibility Advancement Growth (in this order) Detractors claim: Ignores situation variables, does not show any relationship between satisfaction and production, and other questioned the methodology used to rate satisfaction levels. “Old School” – But Important BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

29. Organizational Approach • Herzberg’s hygiene theory states that two separate and distinct aspects or the work context are responsible for motivation and satisfying employees. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

30. Two–Factor Theory Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

31. AD643 Motivation Points of Note Three Needs Theory: David McClelland (1974) Three major needs or motivators exhibited by employees: 1. The need for Achievement. 2. The need for Power. 3. The need for Affiliation. Goal Setting Theory: Mark E. Tubbs (1986) - Goals can be a major source of work motivation. - Specific goals lead to increase performance - Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals - Mixed results regarding the participation in the goal setting process, but participation does increase the acceptance/action in difficult goals Reinforcement Theory: Luthans and Kreitner (1984) - Argues that Reinforcement conditions behavior. Behaviors are "Reinforced" by consequences immediately following an action and increase the potential of a similar future result. - A counterpoint to Goal Setting Theory, because Reinforcement is carried out by external force and Goal setting is internal - Ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on result of people taking action Equity Theory: Robert P. Vecchio (1984) - Employees see what they get from a job as "Outcomes" and what they but into a job as "Inputs". They then compare these to others. When they sense inequity with others they will be motivated either constructively or destructively to correct these inequities. Expectancy Theory: Victor H. Vroom (1964) - Theory argues that an employee will act in a certain way depending on the strength of an expectation of a certain reward coupled with the attractiveness of that reward. Current Accepted Theory BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

32. AD643 Motivation Points of Note Three Needs Theory: David McClelland (1974) Three major needs or motivators exhibited by employees: 1. The need for Achievement. 2. The need for Power. 3. The need for Affiliation. Goal Setting Theory: Mark E. Tubbs (1986) - Goals can be a major source of work motivation. - Specific goals lead to increase performance - Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals - Mixed results regarding the participation in the goal setting process, but participation does increase the acceptance/action in difficult goals Reinforcement Theory: Luthans and Kreitner (1984) - Argues that Reinforcement conditions behavior. Behaviors are "Reinforced" by consequences immediately following an action and increase the potential of a similar future result. - A counterpoint to Goal Setting Theory, because Reinforcement is carried out by external force and Goal setting is internal - Ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on result of people taking action Equity Theory: Robert P. Vecchio (1984) - Employees see what they get from a job as "Outcomes" and what they but into a job as "Inputs". They then compare these to others. When they sense inequity with others they will be motivated either constructively or destructively to correct these inequities. Expectancy Theory: Victor H. Vroom (1964) - Theory argues that an employee will act in a certain way depending on the strength of an expectation of a certain reward coupled with the attractiveness of that reward. Current Accepted Theory BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

33. Goal Setting Theory • Goal-setting theory states that managers can direct the performance of their employees by assigning specific, difficult goals that employees accept and are will to commit to. • Management by objectives (MBO) is a participative goal-setting technique used in many U.S. organizations. Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

34. Effects on Employee • Directs attention • Energizes • Encourages persistency • New strategies developed Performance Feedback How Goal Setting Works • Goals • Specific • Difficult • Accepted Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

35. AD643 Motivation Points of Note Three Needs Theory: David McClelland (1974) Three major needs or motivators exhibited by employees: 1. The need for Achievement. 2. The need for Power. 3. The need for Affiliation. Goal Setting Theory: Mark E. Tubbs (1986) - Goals can be a major source of work motivation. - Specific goals lead to increase performance - Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals - Mixed results regarding the participation in the goal setting process, but participation does increase the acceptance/action in difficult goals Reinforcement Theory: Luthans and Kreitner (1984) - Argues that Reinforcement conditions behavior. Behaviors are "Reinforced" by consequences immediately following an action and increase the potential of a similar future result. - A counterpoint to Goal Setting Theory, because Reinforcement is carried out by external force and Goal setting is internal - Ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on result of people taking action Equity Theory: Robert P. Vecchio (1984) - Employees see what they get from a job as "Outcomes" and what they but into a job as "Inputs". They then compare these to others. When they sense inequity with others they will be motivated either constructively or destructively to correct these inequities. Expectancy Theory: Victor H. Vroom (1964) - Theory argues that an employee will act in a certain way depending on the strength of an expectation of a certain reward coupled with the attractiveness of that reward. Current Accepted Theory BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

36. Process of Reinforcement and Behavior Change Stimulus Response of Employee (Behavior X) Consequences for Employee Likelihood of Behavior X in a Similar Future Situation Employee Experiences a Reward (Positive Reinforcement) or Employee Avoids a Negative Consequence (Negative Reinforcement) A Situation Experienced By Employee Employee Reacts By Exhibiting Behavior X or Employee Experiences a Negative Consequence (Punishment) or Employee Experiences No Consequences (Extinction) Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

37. AD643 Motivation Points of Note Three Needs Theory: David McClelland (1974) Three major needs or motivators exhibited by employees: 1. The need for Achievement. 2. The need for Power. 3. The need for Affiliation. Goal Setting Theory: Mark E. Tubbs (1986) - Goals can be a major source of work motivation. - Specific goals lead to increase performance - Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals - Mixed results regarding the participation in the goal setting process, but participation does increase the acceptance/action in difficult goals Reinforcement Theory: Luthans and Kreitner (1984) - Argues that Reinforcement conditions behavior. Behaviors are "Reinforced" by consequences immediately following an action and increase the potential of a similar future result. - A counterpoint to Goal Setting Theory, because Reinforcement is carried out by external force and Goal setting is internal - Ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on result of people taking action Equity Theory: Robert P. Vecchio (1984) - Employees see what they get from a job as "Outcomes" and what they but into a job as "Inputs". They then compare these to others. When they sense inequity with others they will be motivated either constructively or destructively to correct these inequities. Expectancy Theory: Victor H. Vroom (1964) - Theory argues that an employee will act in a certain way depending on the strength of an expectation of a certain reward coupled with the attractiveness of that reward. Current Accepted Theory BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

38. Organizational Approach (cont.) • Equity theory states that employees judge whether they’ve been treated fairly by comparing the ratio of their outcomes and inputs to the ratios of others doing similar work. • Reactions to perceived inequity • Increase their outputs • Decrease their outputs • Change their compensation through legal or other actions • Modify their comparison by choosing another person for comparison • Distort reality by rationalizing that the inequities are justified • Leave the situation Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

39. AD643 Motivation Points of Note Three Needs Theory: David McClelland (1974) Three major needs or motivators exhibited by employees: 1. The need for Achievement. 2. The need for Power. 3. The need for Affiliation. Goal Setting Theory: Mark E. Tubbs (1986) - Goals can be a major source of work motivation. - Specific goals lead to increase performance - Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals - Mixed results regarding the participation in the goal setting process, but participation does increase the acceptance/action in difficult goals Reinforcement Theory: Luthans and Kreitner (1984) - Argues that Reinforcement conditions behavior. Behaviors are "Reinforced" by consequences immediately following an action and increase the potential of a similar future result. - A counterpoint to Goal Setting Theory, because Reinforcement is carried out by external force and Goal setting is internal - Ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on result of people taking action Equity Theory: Robert P. Vecchio (1984) - Employees see what they get from a job as "Outcomes" and what they but into a job as "Inputs". They then compare these to others. When they sense inequity with others they will be motivated either constructively or destructively to correct these inequities. Expectancy Theory: Victor H. Vroom (1964) - Theory argues that an employee will act in a certain way depending on the strength of an expectation of a certain reward coupled with the attractiveness of that reward. Current Accepted Theory BOSTON UNIVERSITY - METROPOLITAN COLLEGE Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

40. Expectancy Theory • Expectancy theory states that people tend to choose behaviors that they believe will help them achieve their personal goals (e.g., a promotion or job security) and avoid behaviors that they believe will lead to undesirable personal consequences (e.g., a demotion or criticism). Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University

41. Effort Performance Expectancy Theory Instrumentality Question: If I perform the behavior, what will be the consequences? Expectancy Question: If I make an effort, will I be able to perform the behavior? Obtain desired outcomes (e.g., rewards, recognition, pride) ? ? Receive undesirable outcomes (e.g., punishment, ridicule shame) ? Valence Question: How much do I value the consequences associated with the behavior? Jim Cormier AD643 – Boston University