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Use links on this side to go to Species Groups under each catagory:

Click on the links on this side to see silhouette types in the bird catagories. Use links on this side to go to Species Groups under each catagory:. Waterfowl & Marshland Birds.

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  1. Click on the links on this side to see silhouettetypes in the bird catagories. Use links on this side to go to Species Groups under each catagory: Waterfowl & Marshland Birds Loons, Grebes, Pelicans & Cormorants, Bitterns, Herons, & Ibises, Swans, Geese, & Ducks, Shorebirds, Gulls & Terns, Rails, Coots & Cranes, Kingfishers Perching & Tree-clinging Cuckoos, Woodpeckers, Swifts & Hummingbirds See Visual Types andSilhouette Comparison Predatory Birds See Visual Types andSilhouette Comparison Hawks, Falcons, & Eagles,Owls, Vultures Song Birds See Visual Types andSilhouette Comparison Upland Ground Birds Tyrant Flycatchers, Larks, Swallows, Corvids , Chickadees, Nuthatches & Creepers, Wrens & Dippers, Kinglets & Gnatcatchers, Thrushes, Thrashers, Pipits, Waxwings, Shrikes, Starlings, Vireos, Warblers, Tanagers, Sparrows, Grosbeaks, Icterids, Fringillids Grouse, Quails,Pheasants, & Turkeys, Pigeons & Doves, Goatsuckers & Nighthawks See Visual Types andSilhouette Comparison What Group Best Fits The Bird You Want To Identify?

  2. American Goldfinch (Carduelis tristis) Spotted Towhee (Pipilo maculatus) American Robin (Turdus migratorius)

  3. Northern Harrier (Circus cyaneus) Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis)

  4. Tree Swallow (Tachycineta bicolor) Northern Rough-winged Swallow (Stelgidopteryx serripennis) Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica)

  5. Brewer’s Cowbird (Euphagus cyanocephalus) Red-winged Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus)

  6. Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura)

  7. Western Scrub-Jay (Aphelocoma californica) Yellow Warbler (Dendroica petechia) Belted Kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon)

  8. Double-crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus) Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)

  9. Black-capped Chickadee (Poecile atricapillus) Northern Flicker (Colaptes auratus) European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris)

  10. Amniotes Sauropsids (“reptile-like appearance” - Greek) Diapsids (“two arches” - Greek) Lepidosaurs Squamates Sphenodon Crocodiles Synapsids Snakes Lizards Turtles Birds “Ruling Reptile” Reptiles Group includes dinosaurs (Read chapter 16 (VL) to your hearts content…) Cladogram of Tetrapods: Archosaurs Amphibians

  11. Birds Birds: (~ 30 orders; ~ 193 families; ~ 9700 species) Evolution: • First appearance in fossil record = Jurassic Archaeopteryx: The Original Link Between Birds and Reptiles Class: Aves Reptilian Features: • 1) Non-keratinized snout • Teeth present • 2) Trunk vertebrae not fused • 3) Neck attaches to skull from rear • 4) Long tail with free vertebrae • 5) Ankle / wrist bones free Believed evolved From theropods (velociraptor) Avian Features: 1) Feathers 2) Opposable big toe (hallux) 3) Furcula (wishbone) present Most likely capable of sustained flight ~ 1.5 km / 40 kph

  12. ??? vs. Birds Mastery of flight opened a world of ecological opportunities… Avian Anatomical Adaptations for Flight: 1) Streamlined body: Reduced resistance when moving through air… 2) Feathers: • Similar to reptilian scales (beta-keratin – present in birds / reptiles) • Retain scales on non-feathered parts • Dead structures; damage repair = replacement • Specialized pockets of epidermal / dermal cells (follicles) • Feathers appear in fossil record long before flight (e.g., Caudipteryx) • Hypotheses: 1) Insulation to retain heat (not endothermic…) • 2) Social interactions (e.g., reproduction) • 3) Shading / insulation for eggs • Current Functions of Feathers:

  13. Feather Tracts: Feather attachments grouped in dense concentrations Birds Avian Anatomical Adaptations for Flight: 2) Feathers: • A) Contour Feathers(flight feathers – vaned…) • Long central shaft (rachis) • Broad vane with numerous barbs • Barbules hook barbs together • Calamus (quill) anchors feather in follicle (skin) • Mobile – individual muscles control each feather • Stream-lined; decreases drag • Asymmetrical & curved (independent airfoils) • B) Filoplumes(Provide sensory information) • Long rachis with few barbs at end • C) Down Feathers(Insulation) • Lack central shaft; barbs from feather base • lack barbules; barbs move freely 2000 – 4000 feathers (~ 15% BW)

  14. Can occur together… Birds Avian Anatomical Adaptations for Flight: 2) Feathers: • Range from drab to colorful… • A) Biochrome Pigments • Melanins = earth tones (e.g., grays / blacks / browns) • Resist feather wear(e.g., black wing tips resist fraying) • Resist bacterial degradation (wet climate = dark color) • Absorb energy (thermoregulation / feather drying) • Carotenoids = vibrant colors (e.g., bright yellows / oranges / reds) • Derived from diet (honest signaling…) • Porphyrins = vibrant colors (e.g., bright brown / green / magenta) • Chemically related to hemoglobin • B) Structural Colors • Result from physical alteration of light (e.g., iridescences) • Nanometer-scale structuring in feather: • 1) Air bubbles = White (unpigmented feathers) 2) Melanin granules (melanosomes) = iridescence • High UV reflectance (birds capable of detecting UV light!)

  15. Budgie Yellow-thigh Parrot

  16. Uropygial (Preen) Gland: Juvenile  Adult Non-breeding  Breeding Birds Avian Anatomical Adaptations for Flight: 2) Feathers: • Feather care important… • Located at base of rump • Secrete rich oil (waxes / fatty acids / fat / water) • Preserves feather moistness / flexibility • Cleans / waterproofs feathers • Regulates bacterial / fungal growth • Repel would-be predators (foul-smelling) • Seasonal display • replace feather wear • parasite infestations • Birds go through series of feather coats in lifetime • Molt: Replacement of entire plumage (= feather coat)

  17. Uncinate Processes Birds Avian Anatomical Adaptations for Flight: 3) Bones: A) Pneumatic: (air-filled; reinforced with internal struts (= trabeculae) • Reduced weight (but see diving birds…) • B) Number reduction: (weight) • No teeth • Carpal / tarsal bone reduction • Digits lost • C) Fusion: (strength / stability) • Thoracic vertebrae fused (platform) • Synsacrum (pelvic support) • Pygostyle (tail feather support) • Furculum (wishbone – “spring”) • Carpometacarpus / Tarsometatarsus • D) Additional Modifications • Keeled sternum (muscle attachment) • Enlarged humerus (major force…)

  18. Airfoils to generate lift… Birds Avian Anatomical Adaptations for Flight: 4) Muscles: • Muscle reduction • Jaws – power not necessary (food swallowed whole / in chunks) • Legs – rigid skeleton provides support; perching only major requirement • Muscle centralized on proximal portion of limb (center of gravity) • Flight muscles • Size increase; location near center of gravity • Both up-stroke (supracoracoideus) and down-stroke (pectoralis) muscles • originate on keel 5) Forelimbs Modified as Wings:

  19. Parachuting (drop with little control) Gliding (membranes =  lift) Soaring (utilize wind currents) Passive Flight (requires little energy…) Flight: Active Flight (requires lots of energy…) Evolution of Active Flight: “Arborealists” (ornithologists) • “From the Tree Down” Theory of Flight: • Early ancestors tree climbers – jumped from tree to tree • Selective pressure favored increased distance / lift GlidingWeak FlappingFull Airborne Flapping “Cursorialists” (paleontologists) • “From the Ground Up” Theory of Flight: • Early ancestors fast bipedal runners – “wings” lightened load • Flapping evolved to provide additional forward propulsion • Early ancestors used “wings” to snare insects • Flapping evolved to assist horizontal jumps for prey • Early ancestors used wings to run up steep slopes • Wing Assisted Incline Running

  20. 1% of energy expended per mile covered (versus mouse) Costs: Benefits: Birds Flight: Cost / Benefit of Flying: •  cost / unit distance • Energetically costly (short-term) • Limits range of body size • Exploitation of new resources Birds =  variation than other verts. 64,000x vs. 50,000,000x • Escape from predators Metabolic / Energetic Requirements for Flight: Bird’s core temperature higher than similar sized mammal • Reduction in Weight (= reduce cost of flight) • Visceral organs small but efficient; pneumatic skeleton • High Metabolic Rate ( ability to sustain muscle activity) • Endothermy: Core temp. sustained by heat released from metabolic processes • Advantages: • 1) Faster response time for brain / muscles • 2) Activity levels maintained in cold environments • Disadvantage:  caloric intake required

  21. Birds Flight: Required Modifications for Endothermy: • 1) Cardiovascular System • Larger, more muscular heart •  blood flow /  blood pressure • Separation of O2-rich / O2-poor blood •  hemoglobin concentration in blood • 2) Respiratory System •  exchange surface / unit lung volume • Unidirectional air flow (no mixing of fresh / stale air) •  blood flow to lungs • 3) Insulation (= feathers)

  22. Alula“Bastard wing” • Reduce drag by improving air flow • over wing (= steeper angle of attacks) Birds Mechanics of Wing Design: • Two types of contour feathers present on wing: • 1) Primaries: Located on hand; provide thrust • 2) Secondary: Located on back of arm; provide lift During upstroke, air passes between flight feathers = cost reduction… • Force produced as air passes wing: • 1) Lift = Vertical force equal to or greater than weight of bird • A) Cambered Airfoil • Upward curvature of wing; tapers toward back • Ventral = High pressure; Dorsal = Low pressure Bernoulli principle •  camber allows for flight at slower speeds • B) Angle of Attack • Leading edge of wing tilted;  pressure dorsally • Stalling angle = airflow separates from wing (~ 15º)

  23. Low Aspect Ratio = Wide, short wings (higher drag) High Aspect Ratio = long, narrow wings (lower drag) Birds Flight: Mechanics of Wing Design: • Force produced as air passes wing: • 2) Drag = Component opposing forward movement; created by turbulent air flow • Highest at tips of wings • Reduce effect = 1) Taper wing • 2) Lengthen wing • Aspect ratio = measures amount of wing drag produced, relative to lift Ratio = wing span / wing width • Wing Loading: (Ratio = body mass / wing surface area) • Correlates to size – body mass  faster than surface area as body size  • Low Wing Loading = more maneuverable;  power needed to sustain flight • High Wing Loading = less maneuverable; often soaring birds

  24. Elliptical (short & rounded) High Speed (Taper to point) High Lift (Long & broad) Dynamic Soaring (Long & narrow) Characteristic Sparrow Robin Pigeon Swallow Duck Falcon albatross shearwater petrel eagle vulture raven Examples: Camber High Low Very low High Alula Large Absent Absent Large Speed Slow Fast Fast Slow – Mod. Acceleration Fast Slow Slow Fast Maneuverability High Moderate Very Low High Endurance Low High Very High Moderate Aspect Ratio Low (3 – 6) Moderate (5 – 9) Very high (9 – 18) Moderate (6 – 7) Low (small birds) High (large birds) Moderate (can pick up weight) Wing Loading Moderate - High Low (small birds) Birds Major Structural Wing Types:

  25. Birds Reproduction: • Utilize colors, postures, and vocalizations for species, sex, and individual • identification • Bird Song: Complex array of notes, often with frequency modulation • Often male specific and during breeding season • Learned behavior; “window” of opportunity during development • Species specific; regional dialects relatively common • Function: • 1) Attract mates • 2) Repel rivals • Visual displays often associated with song: • ♀♀ select males based on visual characteristics : • Good nutritional status • Low parasite loads • Predator avoidance “truth in advertising…” ♀♀ prefer ♂♂ with longer tails and more eye spots Offspring grew faster;  survival rates

  26. Resource defense polygyny Male dominance polygyny Resource defense polyandry • Better quality mate • Increased heterozygosity • “hedging” your bets Birds Reproduction: • Birds exhibit two broad categories of mating systems: 1) Monogamy: Pair bond between single male and female (~ 90% of bird species) • Both parents required to raise young (e.g., food acquisition) • Resource distribution (even – control impossible…) • Skewed sex ratio (partner becomes prized “resource”) • MONOGAMY does not necessarily mean FIDELITY • Extra-pair copulation common • 2) Polygamy: Individuals mate with > one partner during single breeding season • Polygyny = Single ♂ – multiple ♀♀; Polyandry = Single ♀ / many ♂♂ Lek: Aggregation of many males

  27. Shallow depression (e.g., Killdeer) Megapodes bury eggs Brood Patch Elaborate structure (e.g., osprey) Colonial Nesting Protection in numbers Birds Reproduction: Why? Constraints based on flight • All birds are oviparous • Most likely ancestral reproductive mode • No pressure to evolve vivipary (e.g. endothermy = incubated eggs always warm) • Genetic sex determination • Heterogametic chromosomes – ♀♀ = WZ / ♂♂ = ZZ • Nests protects eggs from physical stresses and predation: Egg Incubation ~ 33 – 37 ºC Feathers lost; Blood vessels proliferate Stimulated by prolactin

  28. Incubation may last from 10 – 80 days PrecocialSemiprecocialAltricial Altricial < Precocial High yolk Moderate yolk Low yolk Down present Down present Down Absent Eyes open Eyes open Eyes closed Infanticide Mobile Semi-mobile Not mobile Self-feeding Not self-feeding Not self-feeding Ducks Hawks Passerines Birds Reproduction: • Clutch size variable: • Trade-off Hypotheses: Driving force is maximization of lifetime reproductive success • Physical strain on females / exposure to predation during food collection • 2) Predation Hypotheses: Driving force is minimization of nest detection by predators • More eggs / young =  detection (sound / smell / trips to nest / etc.) • 3) Seasonality Hypotheses: Driving force is food availability during breeding season • More eggs / young =  food reserves /  competition • Young at differing levels of development at hatching: Growth Rates: Altricial > Precocial

  29. Dabbling Ducks Diving Ducks Sea Ducks Characteristic Relatively long; centered under body Short but strong; set far back on body Short but strong; set far back on body Northern Shoveler American Widgeon Cinnamon Teal Redhead Canvasback Lesser Scaup Bufflehead Eider Merganser Examples Smaller Larger; long outer toes Larger; long outer toes Dip head underwater; skim surface with bill Dive from surface; wings pressed to body Dive from surface; wings open (steer / paddle) Legs Invertebrates; aquatic vegetation Invertebrates; fish (rare) Feet Invertebrates Big, broad wings; lower wing loading Smaller wings; higher wing load Smaller wings; higher wing load Feeding More maneuverable; can fly slow Less maneuverable; need room to take off Less maneuverable; need room to take off Diet Shallow edges of lake; surface in deeper areas Center of lake; deeper water Marine coastlines; fast, clear streams Wings Flight Habitat Birds • Shared Characteristics: • 1) 3 front toes completely webbed • 2) Penis present in males • 3) Bill typically flattened / blunt-tipped Ducks: (~ 35 species in North America)

  30. Tufted Duck – head raise Ruddy Duck – tail raise Dabbler Specialty: Iridescent speculum on wing Lift wing to display speculum Birds Ducks: (~ 35 species in North America) Duck Life Histories: Mating Behavior: • Initiated late fall / early winter (wintering grounds / migration) • Skewed sex ratio – many ♂; fewer ♀ • Form monogamous pair bond (seasonal) • Males attract females via: • 1) Visual Displays: • Coloration (♂s more colorful than ♀s) • Most elaborate in dabblers • 2) Vocal Displays (primarily dabblers) • Dabblers have louder, deeper voices

  31. Mallard Scaup Merganser Birds Ducks: (~ 35 species in North America) Duck Life Histories: Nesting Characteristics: • Location of Nest: • Dabblers = Ground • Divers = Emergent / Floating vegetation • Sea = Tree cavities • Age at 1st reproduction: • Dabblers / Divers = 1 year • Sea = 2-3 years • # of Eggs in Nest: • Dabblers / Divers = 8 – 12 eggs • Sea = < 8 eggs (space issues in cavity) Brood parasitism does occur… • Incubation: • Females only (20 – 30 days) • Pair bond only lasts until eggs are laid • Parental Care: • Females: 2 – 6 weeks; guard from predators

  32. Reduce Cost… Birds Ducks: (~ 35 species in North America) Duck Life Histories: • Seasonal Migration Patterns: • Benefit = Net increase in lifetime reproductive output • Spring – Summer: • Breed at high latitudes (e.g., Canada / Alaska; long days = increased foraging) •  insect population for young • Fall – Winter: • Fly south to avoid physical stresses of extreme cold / lack of food • Costs = 1)  death rate for young • 2)  food acquisition for energy to travel • 3) Restricted stops (fewer wetlands to choose from) 4 major N-S flyways in North America (Ducks heading to Alaska…) 10% • Fly at night; usually < 1000 ft. • Variety of orientation methods: • Sun / star compasses • Magnetic field 50% 25% 10%

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