Chapter 5

1. Chapter 5 Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

2. By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: • Distinguish among purpose statements, research questions, hypotheses, and objectives • Define the nature of a variable and the types of variables in quantitative research • Define a theory and its test using variables • Write quantitative purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses • Identify similarities and differences between quantitative and qualitative purpose statements and research questions • Define a central phenomenon in qualitative research • Write qualitative purpose statements and research questions John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

3. Purpose Statements, Research Questions, Hypotheses, and Objectives Purpose Statement Research Questions Hypotheses Research Objectives Overall direction Make predictions about expectations Raise questions to be answered State goals Intent One or more objectives Form One or more sentences One or more questions One or more statements Use Quantitative and qualitative research Quantitative and qualitative research Quantitative research Typically quantitative research Placement End of the introduction, after the literature review, or in a separate section of the study End of introduction John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

4. Why These Statements and Questions Are Important • Represent major signposts • Help identify appropriate methods • Help link intent with the results John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

5. What We Need to Know to Design Quantitative Purpose Statements, Research Questions, and Hypotheses • What is a variable? • What is a theory? • What elements go into these statements and questions? John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

6. What Is a Variable? A Variable (A Characteristic or Attribute) That can be and Measured Varies (Can be assessed on an instrument and recorded on an instrument) (Can assume different values or scores for different individuals) John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

7. Variables Leadership style Organizational control Autism Difficult, but possibly measurable, variables Socialization Imagination Intuition Discrimination Examples of Variables and Nonvariables Almost impossible to measure variables • Subconscious thoughts • World poverty • Stereotypes John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

8. Categorical and Continuous Measures of Variables • A categorical measure is a value of a variable assigned by the researcher into a small number of categories. (e.g., gender) • A continuous measure is the value of a variable assigned by the researcher to a point along a continuum of scores, from low to high. (e.g., age) John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

9. Variables and Constructs • A variable is an attribute or characteristic stated in a specific or applied way. • A construct is an attribute or characteristic expressed in an abstract, general way. Construct Student Achievement Variable Grade Point Average John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

10. Families of Variables in Quantitative Studies Probable Cause (X) Effect (Z) (Y) • Independent • Variables • Treatment • Measured Intervening Variables Dependent Variables Control Variables Moderating Variables Confounding Variables John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

11. Family of Variables • Dependent variables: An attribute or characteristic influenced by the independent variable. • The outcome • The effect • The criterion • The consequences John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

12. Family of Variables (cont’d) • Independent variable: An attribute or characteristic that influences or affects an outcome or dependent variable • Treatment variable • Measured variable • Control variable • Moderating variable John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

13. Intervening Variables • Intervening variables (mediating variables): An attribute or characteristic that “stands between” the dependent and independent variables John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

14. Example of an Intervening Variable Independent Variable Dependent Variable Step 1 Convenient office hours for students Student seeks help from faculty Example Independent Variable Intervening Variable Independent Variable Step 2 Student becomes willing to take risks Convenient office hours for students Example Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable Step 3 Convenient office hours for students Student becomes willing to take risks Example Student seeks help from faculty John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

15. Family of Variables • Confounding variables (spurious variables): Attributes or characteristics that the researcher cannot directly measure because their effects cannot be easily separated from the other variables, even though they may influence the relationship between the independent and the dependent variable John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

16. Theories as Bridges Between Independent and Dependent Variables Theory Independent Variables Dependent Variables John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

17. Different Types of Explanations in Quantitative Research Extensive Tests by Other Researchers Broad Abstractions As a formal theory that is expressed by connected hypotheses and variables identified by authors As a conceptual framework often expressed as a visual model by other authors for relationship As a theoretical rationale posed by other authors based on studies for relationship An explanation posed by the author as a hunch for why the independent variable relates to the dependent variable No Test Narrow Application John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

18. Elements of a QuantitativePurpose Statement • A quantitative purpose statement identifies the variables, their relationship, and the participants and site for research • Guidelines for writing • Use a single sentence • Use wording such as The purpose of this study . . . • If using a theory, state the theory you plan to test • Use quantitative words (e.g., “relate,” “compare,” “describe”) to describe the relationships between variables John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

19. Elements of quantitative purpose statement (cont’d) • Guidelines for writing (cont’d) • Independent variable (1st position in sentence) • Dependent variable (2nd position in sentence) • Control and/or mediating variable (3rd position in sentence) • Research site • Participants John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

20. Quantitative Research Questions • Types of quantitative research questions • Describe results of your variables • Compare two or more groups on the independent variable in terms of the dependent variable • Relate two or more variables • Guidelines for writing • Pose a question • Begin with “how,” “what,” or “why” • Specify the independent, dependent, and mediating or control variables • Use the words describe, compare, or relate to indicate the action or connection among the variables • Indicate the participants and the research site for the study John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

21. Research hypotheses: Types • Null hypothesis • No change in the dependent variable • Example: There will be no significant difference in test scores between fifth-grade boys and girls on the XYZ achievement test. • Directional alternative hypothesis • Specifies the direction of the change in the dependent variable the researcher predicts will take place • Example: Fifth-grade girls will have higher scores on the XYZ achievement test than fifth-grade boys. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

22. Research Hypotheses: Types (cont’d) • Nondirectional alternative hypothesis • Does not specify the direction of the change in the dependent variable • Example: There will be a difference in test scores on the XYZ achievement test for fifth-grade boys and girls. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

23. Research Hypotheses • Guidelines for writing • State the variables in this order: independent (first position), dependent (second position), and control (third position) • When comparing, explicitly state the groups; if variables are related, specify the relationship between the variables • Make a prediction about changes you expect in your groups. • State information about the participants and the site unless it repeats information stated in your purpose statement John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

24. Designing Qualitative Purpose Statements and Research Questions • Understand how these statements and questions differ from quantitative research • Understand the role of a central phenomenon in qualitative research • Understand qualitative research as an emerging process John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

25. Quantitative—more closed Probable cause/effect (“Why did it happen?”) Use of theories (“Why did it happen in view of an explanation or theory?”) Assess differences and magnitude (“How much happened?”) (“How many times did it happen?”) (“What were the differences amonggroups in what happened?”) Qualitative—more open-ended Descriptive (“What happened?”) Interpretive (“What was the meaning to people of what happened?”) Process-oriented (“What happened over time?”) Differences Between Quantitative and Qualitative Purpose Statements and Research Questions John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

26. Quantitative Explaining or Predicting Variables Qualitative Understanding or Exploring a Central Phenomenon Y Explaining or Predicting Variables Versus Exploring or Understanding a Central Phenomenon X Y The independent variable (X) influences a dependent variable (Y) In-depth understanding of Y; external forces shape and are shaped by Y John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

27. Two Qualitative Research Considerations • The focus of the research is around a central phenomenon which is an issue or a process the researcher would like to study. • Qualitative research is built on an emerging design. John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

28. Elements of Qualitative Purpose Statement • A single sentence • A statement such as, “The purpose of this study” • The central phenomenon • A statement identifying the type of qualitative design • Qualitative words (e.g., “explore,” “understand,” “discover”) • The participants • The research site John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

29. Types of Qualitative Research Questions: • Central question: The overarching question you explore in the research study • Subquestions: Divides the central question into smaller, specific questions • Issue subquestions: Narrow the focus of the central question into specific issues • Procedural subquestions: Indicate the steps to be used in analyzing the data in a qualitative study • Interview questions: Questions that are asked during your interview that are based on your subquestions and central question John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition