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Positive Economics

Positive Economics. Scientific approach to analysis that establishes cause-and-effect relationships among economic variables Attempts to be objective Formulates “If…then” hypotheses that can be checked against facts

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Positive Economics

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  1. Positive Economics • Scientific approach to analysis that establishes cause-and-effect relationships among economic variables • Attempts to be objective • Formulates “If…then” hypotheses that can be checked against facts • Useful to the normative approach in that it cannot make recommendations to achieve certain outcomes without an underlying theory of human behavior

  2. Normative Economics • Designed to formulate recommendations as to what should be accomplished • Not objective • Begins with predetermined criteria and is used to prescribe policies that best achieve those criteria • Useful to the positive approach in that it defines relevant issues

  3. The Efficiency Criterion • Normative criterion for evaluating effects of resource use on individual well-being • Satisfied when resources are used in such a way as to make it impossible to increase the well-being of any one person without reducing the well-being of another • Often referred to as the criterion of Pareto optimality

  4. Definitions • Total social benefit – any given quantity of an economic good available in a give time period will provide satisfaction to those who consume it • Marginal social benefit – the extra benefit by making one more unit of that good available in a given time period • Total social cost – the value of all resources necessary to make a given amount of the good available • Marginal social cost – minimum sum required to compensate the owners of inputs used for making an extra unit of the good available

  5. Conditions for Efficiency • Net Benefit = TSB – TSC • To Maximize Net Benefit • Greatest distance between TSB and TSC curves • MSB = MSC

  6. Efficient Output

  7. …which implies • Perfectly competitive markets • All productive resources are privately owned. • All transactions take place in markets, in which competing sellers offer a standardized product to many buyers. • Economic power is dispersed in that no single buyer or seller can influence prices. • All relevant information is available to buyers and sellers. • Resources are mobile and may be freely employed in any enterprise. • No externalities

  8. …which implies P = MPB = MSB and P = MPC = MSC so P = MSB = MSC

  9. Inefficiency in Competitive Markets • Prices do not always fully reflect marginal social benefits/costs of output • Means other than markets needed to make social benefits of certain goods available • Failure of markets to make available certain goods (national defense, environmental protection) gives rise to demand for government production and regulation

  10. Efficiency in Competitive Markets • Allocative Efficiency • Productive Efficiency • Dynamic Efficiency • Variety

  11. B MSB = P MSC = MPC E Loss in Net Benefits MSCM A D = MSB MR QM Q* 0 Monopolistic Power

  12. MPC + T > MSC New Supply = MSC = MPC Supply = E' 6 E 5 4 B MSB Demand = Demand = MSB - T 3 4 0 Loss of Efficiency Due to Taxes 12

  13. Loss of Efficiency Due to Government Subsidies

  14. S2 X 5 Q2 0 Farm Crisis S E 4 D Q1

  15. 0 Agricultural Price Supports MSC Supply = B 5 5 A A E 4 C C 3 3 Demand = MSB + G MSB Demand = QD Q* QS

  16. 0 Price Ceiling MSC Supply = B 5 5 E 4 C 3 3 A MSB Demand = QS Q* QD

  17. Basis for Government Intervention in Markets • Exercise of monopoly power in markets • Effects of market transactions on third parties • Lack of a market for a good with a marginal social benefit that exceeds its marginal social cost • Incomplete information • Economic stabilization

  18. Equity Versus Efficiency • Many argue that resource allocation should also be evaluated in terms of equity, or perceived fairness of the outcome. • Horizontal equity is achieved when equal people are treated equally. • Vertical equity is achieved when people are treated fairly along the socio-economic continuum. • People differ in their ideas about fairness. • Analysts usually try to determine the effects of government actions on both resource allocation and the distribution of well-being. • The utility-possibility curve presents the maximum attainable level of well-being (utility) for one individual, given the utility level of others in the economy, their tastes, resource availability, and technology.

  19. Utility-Possibility Curve

  20. Equity Versus Efficiency in Competitive Markets • Critics of the market system argue that many participants cannot satisfy basic needs because they cannot pay for goods and services. • Critics of the market system argue that the poor should receive transfers financed by taxes on the more fortunate. • However, taxes used to alter the distribution of income distort incentives to produce, preventing achievement of efficiency. • Thus, equity versus efficiency causes conflict for policy makers.

  21. Utilitarianism UA Slope = -1 Annual Well-Being of A UB 0 Annual Well-Being of B

  22. o 45 Rawlsian UA lexicographic Annual Well-Being of A UB 0 Annual Well-Being of B

  23. Standard Social Welfare Function UA Annual Well-Being of A UB 0 Annual Well-Being of B

  24. Utility-Possibility Curve UA Z E1 UA2 Annual Well-Being of A X E2 UA1 E3 UB1 UB2 UB 0 Annual Well-Being of B

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