Learning Objectives:

1. Learning Objectives: • To recognize the elements of an argument. • To recognize types of arguments. • To evaluate arguments. • To recognize errors in logical reasoning.

2. Parts of an Argument • ISSUE - problem or controversy about which people disagree • CLAIM - the position on the issue • SUPPORT - reasons and evidence that the claim is reasonable and should be accepted • REFUTATION/COUNTER CLAIM - opposing viewpoints • CONCLUSION – end essay with a final thought and restatement of the issue and claim.

3. Types of Claims: • CLAIM OF VALUE- states that one thing or idea is better or more desirable than another. Ex: “Requiring community service in high school will produce more community-aware graduates.” • CLAIM OF POLICY- suggests what should or ought to be done to solve a problem. Ex:“Toreduce school violence, more gun and metal detectors should be installed in public schools.”

4. Types of Support: • REASON - a general statement that supports a claim. • EVIDENCE - consists of facts, statistics, experiences, comparisons, and examples that show why the claim is valid. • EMOTIONAL APPEALS- ideas that are targeted toward needs or values that readers are likely to care about.

5. Audience Appeal Pathos: Emotional Appeal = Appeals to the HEART • Commercials • Fundraising Campaigns Ethos: Ethical Appeal = Based on the writer’s authority, credibility and expertise • Advertising using expert testimony • Doctors prescribing treatment Logos: Logical Appeal = Appeals to reasoning and logic; include facts, statistics, etc. that cannot be refuted • Have sound and proven evidence for argument • Employs the use of inductive and deductive reasoning

6. Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning • Inductive: an argument in which it is thought that thepremises provide reasons supporting the probable truth of the conclusion. In an inductive argument, the premises are intended only to be so strong that, if they are true, then it is unlikelythat the conclusion is false. • Deductive: an argument in which it is thought that the premises provide a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion. In a deductive argument, the premises are intended to provide support for the conclusion that is so strong that, if the premises are true, it would be impossiblefor the conclusion to be false.

7. Inductive and Deductive Arguments: • INDUCTIVE - reaches a general conclusion from observed specifics. • Ex. “By observing the performance of a large number of athletes, you could conclude that athletes possess physical stamina.”

8. Inductive and Deductive Arguments • DEDUCTIVE- begins with a major premise and moves toward a more specific statement or minor premise. • Ex: “Athletes possess physical stamina. Because Anthony is an athlete, he must possess physical stamina.”

9. Errors in Logic – Not ALL Arguments are Good Ones! • Sometimes, arguments are not logical, the evidence or reasoning provided doesn’t “prove” anything valid. These are arguments for the sake of arguments.

10. Errors in Logical Reasoning: Commonly called logical fallacies invalidate the argument or render argument flawed. • Circular Reasoning/Begging the Question: Argument continues without proof/reason. Ex:“Female police officers should not be sent to crime scenes because apprehending criminals is a man’s job.” • Hasty Generalization: Conclusion derived from insufficient evidence. Ex: “Because one apple is sour, all of them in the bowl must be sour.”

11. More Errors in Logical Reasoning: • Non Sequitur (“It Does Not Follow”): “Because my doctor is young, I’m sure she’ll be a good doctor.” • False Cause: The effect could have more than one cause, therefore the argument’s not necessarily true. Ex. “Because I opened the umbrella when I tripped on the sidewalk, the umbrella must have caused me to trip.” • Either-Or Fallacy: There is more than one reason behind this; the evidence doesn’t support it.Ex: “Because of the violence, TV must be either allowed or banned.”

12. Speech Analysis Now that you know HOW speakers use persuasive techniques to get an audience’s attention, see if you can analyze and explain how one of our nation’s greatest speakers won millions of Americans…

13. Define the following terms: • Archaic: No longer in everyday use but sometimes used to impart an old-fashioned flavor. • Allusion: Reference to some thing, person or event in literature or history. • Metaphor: Comparison of two unlike things to establish a better understanding of something. • Homonym: Two words that sound/are spelled alike and have two different meanings. • Tone: The attitude with which a speaker addresses an audience. • Mood: The emotional quality the speaker intends to evoke. • Repetition: Using the same words or phrase repeatedly to make a point or to connect ideas. • Audience Appeal: The quality of being attractive to an audience in appearance, rhetoric or emotional assertion.

14. Martin Luther King Jr. • Who was he? • What issues did he address? • What historical events were going on during his time? • Why is he so famous? • How educated was he? • What was he able to accomplish?

15. First, read and analyze for historical context: • Name of speaker: Date of Speech: • Title of Speech: • Intended Audience: • Topics/Issues: • What is he trying to tell the audience regarding these issues? • What problem is he addressing? • What solution is he proposing? • What is the tone of the speech? • What mood does King establish? • How does he employ the use of pathos, logos and ethos?

16. Application to the Stasis Theory: • Facts (conjecture): What facts does the speaker refer to that let the audience know what the problem is? What is the problem? • Meaning of the issue (definition): What, specifically, is the issue being addressed? Define it to the best of your ability. • Seriousness of the issue (quality): How important is the issue being addressed? How does he make sure the audience knows this? • Plan of action (policy): How does the speaker propose the problem be solved or addressed?

17. Second, analyze for PERSUASIVE & LITERARY techniques used in the speech: • Emotional Appeal: Connection with the audience. The use of “my friends”, “my people”, “we”and“happy to join you”—he’s indicating that he, himself, is part of the audience as well, that they share something. • Emotional Language: he conveys passion, talks about freedom and justice—strong emotional words and phrases. He also makes religious connections—this suggests moral values. • Allusions: King makes several references to the Bibleitself, uses biblical language in several paragraphs and also alludes to the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution.

18. PERSUASIVE & LITERARY techniques cont’d: • Repetition: The repetition of “I have a dream” is obvious; it becomes a chant, makes the audience consider their own dreams and binds them together. • Parallelism: All of the paragraphs flow and all contain a connectednessand builds a rhetorical momentum

19. Figurative Language: He uses METAPHORSthroughout the speech: • “who have been seared in the flames of withering justice” • “lonely island of poverty” • “vast ocean of material prosperity” • “we are architects of our republic” • “Bank of justice is bankrupt” • “great vaults of opportunity” • “drug of gradualism” • “sweltering summer…of discontent” • What others do you see?

20. Background of the Play & Terms Defined Falstaff is one of the King’s old friends; they used to be close, but not any more. Therefore, when Falstaff goes to talk to him, he acts like they’re still good friends. However, when the King addresses Falstaff he acts very arrogant, like he’s too good to be talking to someone so common. He says that in their youth, Falstaff made him do stupid things. He jokes at his size, says all he was to him was a “jester,” someone who was stupid and made him laugh, and then basically dismisses him without acknowledging their friendship. • Imp: mischievous child • Surfeit: excessive amount • Gape: wide opening or breach • Banish: to turn away • Dismissive: act like someone is unworthy of consideration • Wits: keen intelligence • Jester: person who habitually plays the fool • Thrice: 3 times • Misleaders: someone who leads astray • Competence: ability to do something well • Tenure: permanent post or occupation • Grieve: deep sorrow

21. Unit #3 – Proficiency Prep - Vocabulary • Scullery maid: the lowest-ranked and often the youngest of the female servants and acted as assistant to a kitchen • Indictment: formal charge or accusation of a serious crime • Domestic: of or relating to the home or family • Tranquility: calmness; peacefulness; quiet; serenity • Posterity: future generations • Ordain: To invest with ministerial or priestly authority • Mockery: to make fun of; ridicule • Disenfranchisement: Deprive (someone) of the right to vote • Consent: to give permission to • Derive: obtain something from

22. Sovereign: A supreme ruler • Dissension: Disagreement that leads to discord • Discord: lack of harmony • Hardihood: boldness, daring • Abridge: the shortened version of something • Privilege: a special right or advantage • Immunities: Protection or exemption from something • Subservient: Prepared to obey others unquestioningly • Odious: extremely unpleasant; repulsive • Oligarchy: a state governed by a small group of people

23. Unit #3 – Proficiency Prep –Literary Devices • Stage Directions: the part in a play or monologue that describes what the characters are doing • Hyperbole: extreme exaggeration • Parallelism: use of successive verbal constructions in poetry or prose that correspond in grammatical structure, sound or meaning • Rhetorical Question: statement that is formulated as a question but that is not supposed to be answered • Irony: when the opposite of what is expected to happen actually occurs • Emotional Appeal: persuasive technique intended to draw a particular feeling from the audience • Oxymoron: two things that contradict one another • Restatement: when something is stated, then stated again, in a different manner, for clarity

24. Unit #3 – Proficiency Prep – Grammar • Neutral Gender Words: Do NOTuse “him”, “he” or “his” when the sentence may be referring to a mixed group. Use either “his and hers” or “their” • Use of “You”: Unless it is in a direct quote, “you” should be REPLACEDwith a third person pronoun; such as “his or her”, “their” or “they” • Use of pronouns: Make sure that the pronouns used in a sentence match the subject they are referring to.

25. GRAMMAR REVIEW Complete the following exercises out of the Grammar handbook: • Ex. 12, pg. 132 • Ex. 13, pg. 136