Linguistic Transfer: Interpreting English and ASL

1. Linguistic Transference and Interference: Interpreting Between English and ASL Jeffrey Davis Davis, Jeffrey E. 1990. Linguistic transference and interference: Interpreting between English and ASL. In C. Lucas (Ed.), Sign Language Research: Theoretical Issues. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.

2. Bilingualism • The prolonged and intensive contact between ASL and English has resulted in linguistic outcomes similar to those found in other bilingual communities. • Interpreting between ASL and English has significant implications for sign language interpreters, who function at the point of interface of both languages and cultures.

3. Bilingualism • At societal level, US deaf community described as multilingual (ASL, English, English-based signing, and contact sign are used in varying degrees). • Deaf people are likely to be bilingual – most members of the community use signed, written, or even spoken English in addition to ASL.

4. Particular challenges with English to ASL interpreting • Involves two structurally divergent languages • Involves different linguistic modalities (aural/oral vs. visual/gestural) • Exacerbated by the fact that English is the dominant language (greater status and wider use) • English – deaf ed./primary language/upper mobility • ASL – informal setting/intragroup activities

5. Questions addressed by research study • How do interpreters visually or manually represent source language forms (English) in the target language output (ASL)? • What is the nature and structure of the interpreters’ representations of English forms in the visual-manual modality of ASL?

6. Questions addressed by research study • When can interlingual transfer between ASL and English be considered code-switching, code-mixing, or lexical borrowing?

7. Definitions • Transference: • Happens when interpreters encode English forms in the ASL output, as opposed to interpreting them. • They mark them in very systematic ways. • This disambiguates and elucidates discontinuities between ASL and English.

8. Definitions • Code-switching • Broad term used to refer to any stretch or portion of discourse where there is alternation between two language (Complete switch to another language) • In ASL, code-switching often refers to switches from ASL signing to English-based signing – switching within modality.

9. Definitions • Code-mixing • Pieces of one language are used while a speaker is basically using another language. • In this paper, code-mixing describes the interpreters’ simultaneous mouthing of English words while signing ASL.

10. Definitions • Lexical Borrowing • Words from one language are used repeatedly in another language until they eventually become indistinguishable from the native vocabulary. (assimilation) • The borrowed form gets used longitudinally across speakers until it takes on the phonological and morphological characteristics of the borrowing language.

11. Definitions • Interference: • Transfer of rules from one language to another • Occurs when the encoding of English forms in the ASL output interferes with the propositional content of the message. • Encoded English forms that are sporadic and unsignaled appear to be a form of interference.

12. Definitions • Interference, examples while interpreting • The inappropriate use of English mouthing during an ASL interpretation. • Glossing of ASL signs during an ASL to English interpretation. (Ex. GO,GO,GO)

13. Definitions • Most ASL/English interpretation happens simultaneously –interpreting between two structurally different languages, some interference can be expected. • Hard to determine factors that contribute to this – topic difficulty, lack of language proficiency, simultaneous vs. consecutive, etc.

14. The Study • Two CODA interpreters – interpreting into their native language (ASL). • Three sets of transcriptions; the spoken English and both ASL interpretations. • Analyzed ASL grammatical features – nonmanual behaviors, use of space, indexing and mouthing.

15. Code-mixing? Code-switching? Lexical borrowing? • Three major ways English words or phrases are represented in the visual modality during interpreting: • Pronounced mouthing of English words while signing ASL • Prefacing or following an ASL sign with fingerspelled word • Marking or flagging a fingerspelled word or the signed representation of an English word or phrase with ASL lexical items (index marker, the demonstrative, quotation markers, etc)

16. Mouthing English while Signing ASL • The mouth is sometimes used to visually represent certain English words. • A type of simultaneous code-switching occurs rather than sequential switching from one language to another. • Over time, many of the mouthed English words are no longer recognizable as English.

17. Mouthing English while Signing ASL • A range of mouthing is evident • English words are sometimes clearly visible on the mouth (ex. Nouns, question words, numbers, lists, and fingerspelled words) • Use of reduced English mouthing where it is no longer seen as representing English (LATE, HAVE, FINISH)

18. Fingerspelling • Fingerspelling used primarily to represent proper nouns and English terms that do not have ASL lexical equivalents. • Fingerspelling forms an integral part of ASL, as opposed to being a part of English. • Represents the orthography of English through the phonology of ASL. • A fingerspelled word may be used repeatedly and become lexicalized into ASL. (#WHAT, #CAR, #BUSY)

19. Fingerspelling in this Study • The interpreters in this study • Sometimes represent an English word or phrase through fingerspelling because there is no translation equivalent for that word in ASL. • A multimeaning ASL sign is tagged or prefaced with a fingerspelled English word. The word is flagged by mouthing, eye gaze, indexing, labeling, quotation markers, palm orientation, etc.

20. Fingerspelling in this Study • When a fingerspelled word gets used repeatedly in a single context, it begins to be lexicalized in ASL according to patterns similar to those found with lexicalized fingerspelling signs. • Deletion and/or assimilation of the number of handshape letters involved during the production

21. Conclusion • A need for modification of the terms traditionally used to characterize language contact phenomena. A definition must be extended to include a switch from ASL to English-based signing (modality switch). • The use of fingerspelling appears to follow a pattern toward lexification into ASL. • Incorporation of English into ASL interpreting is not sporadic or unsignaled, rather, patterned and rule governed.