TWENTIETH-CENTURY PHYSICAL EDUCATION, EXERCISE SCIENCE, AND SPORT

1. TWENTIETH-CENTURY PHYSICAL EDUCATION, EXERCISE SCIENCE, AND SPORT

2. MODERN PHYSICAL EDUCATION • 1893—Thomas Wood—"The great thought in physical education is not the education of the physical nature, but the relation of physical training to complete education, and then the effort to make the physical contribute its full share to the life of the individual, in environment, training, and culture."

3. THOMAS WOOD

4. THOMAS WOOD • 1891-1901—Stanford—physical education and health undergraduate curricula established • 1901-1932—Teachers College—physical education and health undergraduate and graduate curricula (1927—moved into health education) • Emphasized educational goals through "natural activities"—sports, games, dances, aquatics, arts, and recreation. • 1927—The New Physical Education with Rosalind Cassady

5. LUTHER GULICK

6. LUTHER GULICK • YMCA Training School (1887-1900) • Director of Physical Training for New York City Public Schools (1903-1908) • 1903—Public Schools Athletic League in New York • Class athletics—track and field; basketball; baseball • Athletic badge tests—dash; broad jump; pull-ups • Interschool athletics—Madison Square Garden

7. LUTHER GULICK • Jesse Bancroft served as Assistant Director for physical training in New York • Elizabeth Burchenaldirected the Girls' Branch of the Public Schools Athletic League, which featured folk dancing • 1906—Playground Association of America • 1913—Campfire Girls • Play was the most important educational aspect

8. CLARK HETHERINGTON

9. CLARK HETHERINGTON • Stanford under Wood (1893-1896—student and instructor) • Clark University under G. Stanley Hall—child-study and developmentalism • 1900-1910—Missouri—rid athletics of abuses (supported women's activities) • 1923-1929—New York University—physical education curriculum • 1929-1938—Stanford

10. CLARK HETHERINGTON • Play was a child's chief business in life • Stressed attainment of educational goals in physical activities • 1910—Four phases of the educational process • Organic education • Psychomotor education • Character education • Intellectual education

11. JAY NASH

12. JAY NASH • New York University (1926-1953) • Influenced by Hetherington • Recreation—part of total life experiences for all ages • Emphasis on carry-over sports

13. JESSE WILLIAMS

14. JESSE WILLIAMS • Teachers College of Columbia University (1919-1941) • Expanded Wood's ideas of physical education as part of education, e.g., social education (John Dewey), unified whole, and living in a democratic society • "Education through the physical" • Physical development is a means to an end (educational objectives)

15. CHARLES MCCLOY

16. CHARLES MCCLOY • YMCA—22 years of service at home and abroad • State University of Iowa (1930-1954) • Organic unity—physical dimension—the major aspect of the whole being • “Education of the physical” • Educational objectives—secondary to the development of the physical • Measurement—to develop skill and strength

17. PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT • First playgrounds in urban settings • 1880s—Boston—sand boxes—later in schools • 1890s—New York (Central Park), Boston, and Chicago provided green space for the upper class; opened playgrounds for others • 1894—Chicago—Jane Addams' Hull House—one of several settlement houses where play opportunities were provided for children

18. PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT • Commonalities of early playgrounds • Preadolescent children • Summer months initially • Outdoor equipment • In urban (populated) areas • Philanthropic support (donated land); later cities financed • Supervisors were mothers and police

19. PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT • South Park in Chicago—fields, gymnasium, and other activity spaces • Sport was used as a means of social control for the assimilation of immigrants' cultures and the socialization of American youth • Began with playgrounds for children and transitioned into recreation for all • 1906—Playground Association of America • 1906—Boys' Clubs of America

20. PLAYGROUNDS TO RECREATION • 1910—Boy Scouts of America • 1911—Playground and Recreation Association of America • 1912—Girl Scouts • 1913—Campfire Girls of America • 1930—National Recreation Association • 1965—National Recreation and Park Association • Clark Hetherington—The Normal Course in Play—to train recreation workers

21. RECREATION MOVEMENT • Depression—increased leisure time—softball and bowling • Industrial Recreation—1940s— facilities and equipment provided for leisure time usage by workers—softball, bowling, and basketball • 1950s—beginning of outdoor education movement—hiking, camping, and backpacking

22. FITNESS • 1965—Lifetime Sports Foundation—carry-over sports to play throughout life • Archery • Bowling • Badminton • Golf • Tennis • 1970s—Fitness boom—jogging; tennis; racquetball; aquatic sports

23. ORGANIZED YOUTH SPORTS • 1920s—American Legion baseball • 1930—Pop Warner Football—Joe Tomlin • 1939—Little League Baseball—Carl Stoltz • 1950—Biddy Basketball—Joe Archer • 1950—AAU age-group swimming; later wrestling, skiing, and track and field • 1967—AAU Junior Olympics

24. PHYSICAL FITNESS • 1953—Results of the Kraus-Weber Minimal Muscular Fitness Test: 58% of U.S. youth failed one or more items, while 9% of the European youth failed (tested flexibility) • On stomach—Raise legs (10 seconds each) • On stomach—Raise upper body • On back—Raise legs • Straight leg sit-up • Bent-knee sit-up • Touch toes

25. PHYSICAL FITNESS • 1956—President Eisenhower through an Executive Order established the President's Council on Youth Fitness as an outgrowth of the President's Conference on Physical Fitness • 1956—AAHPER Fitness Conference • June 1 -7, 1958—National Fitness Week

26. PHYSICAL FITNESS • 1957—AAHPER's National Research Council developed the AAHPER Youth Fitness Test • Pull-ups (boys) • Flexed-arm hang (girls) • Sit-ups • Shuttle run • Standing broad jump • 50-yard dash • 600-yard run-walk • Softball throw

27. PHYSICAL FITNESS • 1958—Operation Fitness sponsored by AAHPER to stimulate fitness nationally • 1958—Results of the AAHPER Fitness Youth Test showed poor performance by youth (8500 boys and girls tested in grades 5-12)

28. PHYSICAL FITNESS • 1961—President's Council on Youth Fitness published the "Blue Book" with suggestions for a school-centered program • Identify the physically underdeveloped student and work to improve • Provide at least 15 minutes of vigorous activity daily for all • Use valid fitness tests to determine abilities and evaluate progress

29. PHYSICAL FITNESS • 1994—Physical Best (AAHPERD's educational materials) combined with the FITNESSGRAM developed by the Cooper Institute • Aerobic capacity in a one-mile walk/run or pacer for young children • Body composition • Muscular strength and endurance using curl-ups, push-ups, or alternatively pull-ups, modified pull-ups, or flexed-arm hand and trunk lift • Flexibility using sit-and-reach

30. PHYSICAL FITNESS • 1963—President Kennedy changed name to the President's Council on Physical Fitness • 1965—Retesting of youth with AAHPER Youth Fitness Test showed improvement in students' fitness levels • 1968—Aerobics (Kenneth Cooper) • male = 30 points per week • female = 24 points per week • 1974—Retesting of youth with AAHPER Youth Fitness Test showed no overall improvement in fitness levels since 1965

31. PHYSICAL FITNESS • 1981—AAHPERD Lifetime Health-Related Physical Fitness Test • Body composition using skin-fold measures • Function of heart and circulatory system using a 1.5 mile or 12-minute run • Strength using bent-knee sit-ups in 60 seconds (number done) • Flexibility using straight leg with arm extension

32. REHABILITATION ACT OF 1973, SECTION 504—INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES IN EDUCATION “No otherwise qualified handicapped person shall on the basis of handicap, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or otherwise be subjected to discrimination under any program which receives or benefits from Federal financial assistance.”

33. The Education of all Handicapped Children Act of 1975 Required the development of an Individualized Education Program (IEP) for every child with special needs, including specifically for physical education PUBLIC LAW 94-142

34. IDEA The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) has fostered significant changes in the lives of children with disabilities and their families and in the roles of schools and teachers in the education of children with disabilities. The basic tenets of IDEA have remained intact since the original passage of the law in 1975. However, each set of amendments has strengthened the original law.

35. INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAM • Statement of the child’s present levels of educational performance (PLP) • Statement of measurable annual goals, including benchmarks or short-term objectives • Statement of special education and related services • Statement of any individual modifications in the administration of state or district wide assessment of student achievement • Dates, frequency, location, and duration of services • Transition services

36. CATEGORIES • Physical limitations • Deaf • Blind • Hard of hearing • Orthopedically impaired • Speech impaired • Visually handicapped • Injured • Low skilled

37. CATEGORIES • Mental limitations • Mentally challenged • Learning disabled • Behavioral limitations • Attention-deficit disorder • Emotionally disturbed • Interrelated (multiple handicaps)

38. ADAPTED PHYSICAL EDUCATION Adapted physical education is for exceptional students who are so different in mental, physical, emotional, or behavioral characteristics that in the interest of quality of educational opportunity, special provisions must be made for their proper education.

39. HISTORICALLY • Excused • Corrective or remedial • Individualized • Mainstreaming • Inclusion—integration of children with special needs with students in regular classes • Least restrictive environment

40. MEN'S ATHLETICS • Socially elite—horse racing, dancing, gambling, cards, and yachting • Baseball (1744—England; not 1839 in America) • Cycling—late 1800s • Tennis—1874 from England • Golf—Scotland • Cricket and croquet clubs—late 1800s • 1891—Basketball—James Naismith at the YMCA Training School • 1896—Volleyball—William Morgan at YMCA

41. AMATEUR SPORTS—1850-1900s • Athletic clubs (especially the New York Athletic Club)—provided sports opportunities for members (especially track and field) • 1879—Amateur Athletic Union (1888)—"check the evils of professionalism and promote amateur sport" • 1912—538 athletic clubs and the AAU had 19,000 members • Competition offered (and said to control) 40 sports; later 16 sports—especially basketball, track and field, and boxing

42. MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS • Students promoted, financed, and controlled athletics—faculty and administrators did not want to be involved (no standard rules or eligibility regulations) • Rowing—1852—Harvard over Yale • Baseball—1859—Amherst over Williams • Football—1869 (actually rugby)—Rutgers over Princeton

43. MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS • Social function • Winning=fans=money=winning=fans=money • Recruiting • Professional coaches • Newspaper coverage • Graduate managers • Walter Camp controlled the collegiate football rules committee (1879-1925)

44. MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS • Control established in colleges • Injuries; property damage; class absences; rule confusion; gambling; drunkenness; professionalism; commercialism; loss of values • Benefits—improved health; taught values such as fair play and teamwork; diminished use of tobacco and alcohol; reduced rowdyism; improved discipline; enhanced school spirit

45. Late 1800s—students unified various rules of sports • Harvard faculty attempted to control class absences and to regulate athletic abuses • 1882—Harvard model with three faculty • 1885—added two students and one alumnus; • 1888—three faculty; three students; three alumni

46. MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS • 1895—Midwestern colleges (Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives) • Required to be students • Six months residence for transfers • Must remain eligible academically

47. Representatives from 13 colleges attended the initial meeting in December, 1905, called by President MacCracken of New York University to investigate the future of football due to deaths and injuries, dishonesty, gambling, and eligibility; in January, 1906, a second meeting led to the establishment of the NCAA and the reform of football to prevent injuries and deaths; legalized the forward pass • 1906—National Collegiate Athletic Association was established by 28 colleges

48. AAU AND NCAA CONFLICTS • Olympic team selection (1920s to the 1970s) • National Amateur Athletic Federation—1922 • Sanctioning of events • Certification of records • 1978—Amateur Sports Act

49. MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS • 1929—Savage study of college athletics found problems as reported in American College Athletics • Commercialism • Loss of educational values

50. PRINCIPLES FOR THE CONDUCT OF INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS • Faculty control—institutional or home rule • Conferences—save money; fewer classes missed; equal philosophy and size; rivalry • No seasonal coaches—in departments of physical education to gain faculty status • Rules of sports standardized and provide national tournaments (track and field—1921) • Recruitment and scholarship policies—Sanity Code (1948-1951)