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Chapter 8

Chapter 8. Foundations of Individual and Group Behavior 個人與群體行為的基礎. LEARNING OBJECTIVES. Organizational behavior. Three components of attitudes. Cognitive dissonance. Personality-type framework and its use Perception and the factors that can shape or distort perception.

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Chapter 8

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  1. Chapter 8 Foundations of Individual and Group Behavior 個人與群體行為的基礎

  2. LEARNING OBJECTIVES • Organizational behavior. • Three components of attitudes. • Cognitive dissonance. • Personality-type framework and its use • Perception and the factors that can shape or distort perception. • How managers can shape employee behavior. • Group behavior Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  3. Organizational Behavior (OB)組織行為 • The study of the actions of people at work • The focus of OB • Individual behaviors個人行為。包括態度、人格特性、知覺、學習和動機 • Personality, perception, learning, and motivation • Group behaviors群體行為，包括規範、角色、團隊建立和衝突。 • Norms, roles, team-and conflict • The goals of OB • To explain • To predict behavior OB Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  4. 心若改變....你的態度跟著改變~ 態度改變....你的習慣跟著改變~~ 習慣改變....你的性格跟著改變~~~ 性格改變....你的人生跟著改變~~~~ 態度決定高度 性格決定格局 腦袋決定口袋 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  5. The Organization as an Iceberg Metaphor 態度 認知 規範 非正式反應 人際間與群體間之衝突 EXHIBIT 8.1 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  6. Behaviors of Interest to OB • Employee productivity生產力 • The efficiency and effectiveness of employees • Absenteeism曠職 • The election by employees not to attend work • Turnover離職 • The exit of an employee from an organization • Organizational citizenship組織的優質員工 • Employee behaviors that promote the welfare of the organization Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  7. Understanding Employees • Attitudes態度 • Valuative statements concerning objects, people, or events對於某些物品、人物、事件所作的評估 • Cognitive component認知要素 • The beliefs, opinions, knowledge, and information held by a person一個人所持有的信念、意見、知識或資訊 • Affective component情感要素 • The emotional, or feeling, segment of an attitude某種態度在情緒或感情上的因素 • Behavioral component行為要素 • An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something針對某些人或事所表現出的一特定行為意圖。 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  8. Job-related Attitudes • Job satisfaction工作滿意度 • An employee’s general attitude toward his or her job. • Job involvement工作參與 • The degree to which an employee identifies with his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her job performance important for self-worth. • Organizational commitment組織付出 • An employee’s orientation toward the organization in terms of his or her loyalty to, identification with, and involvement in the organization. Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  9. Cognitive Dissonance認知失調Theory Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes • Inconsistency is uncomfortable and individuals will seek a stable state with a minimum of dissonance. • The desire to reduce dissonance is determined by: • The importance of the elements creating the dissonance • The degree of influence the individual believes he or she has over the elements • The rewards that may be involved. Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  10. Personality性格 and Behavior • Personality is the combination of the psychological traits心理特質 that characterize that person. • Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) • A method of identifying personality types uses four dimensions of personality to identify 16 different personality types • Big Five model • Five-factor model of personality that includes extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  11. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) • Extroversion versus introversion (EI)外向vs.內向 • An individual’s orientation toward the inner world of ideas (I) or the external world of the environment (E). • Sensing versus intuitive (SN)感官vs.直覺 • An individual’s reliance on information gathered from the external world (S) or from the world of ideas (N). Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  12. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (cont’d) • Thinking versus feeling (TF)思考vs.感覺 • One’s preference for evaluating information in a logical andanalytical manner (T) or on the basis of values and beliefs (F). • Judging versus perceiving (JP).判斷vs.認知 • Reflects an attitude toward the external world that is either in a planned and ordered way講求規畫及順序 (J) or preferring to remain flexible and spontaneous保持彈性或順其自然 (P). Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  13. Characteristics Frequently Associated with Myers-Briggs Types Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  14. The Big Five Model of Personality Extroversion外向性 A personality dimension that describes the degree to which someone is sociable, talkative, and assertive. Agreeableness A personality dimension that describes the degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting. Conscientiousness A personality dimension that describes the degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement oriented. Emotional stability A personality dimension that describes the degree to which someone is calm, enthusiastic, and secure (positive) or tense, nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative). Openness to experience A personality dimension that describes the degree to which someone is imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual. Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  15. 五大性格模式 • 外向性格構面：描述一個人喜好社交、交談與專斷程度。 • 適合性格構面：描述一個人良好本質、合作性與信任程度。 • 正直性格構面：描述一個人負責、可信賴、堅毅與成就取向程度。 • 情緒穩定構面：描述一個人鎮靜、熱忱、穩定（正面的）或壓力、緊張、沮喪及不安（負面的）的程度。 • 對經驗的開放性格構面：描述一個人富想像力、對藝術的敏感度與智力程度。 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  16. Emotional intelligence (EI)情緒智商 • An assortment of noncognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that influence a person’s ability to cope with environmental demands and pressures • Self-awareness own feelings • Self-management of own emotions • Self-motivation in face of setbacks • Empathy for others’ feelings • Social skills to handle others’ emotions • 知覺自己情感 • 自我管理情緒 • 自我激勵面對挫折 • 同理心 • 處理他人情緒之社交技能 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  17. Personality Traits And Work-related Behaviors • Locus of control • A personality attribute that measures the degree to which people believe that they are masters of their own fate • Machiavellianism (“Mach”) • A measure of the degree to which people are pragmatic務實, maintain emotional distance, and believe that ends can justify means目標可以合理化任何手段 • 命運之內外控傾向 • 馬基維利主義 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  18. Personality Traits And Work-related Behaviors (cont’d) • Self-esteem (SE) • An individual’s degree of life dislike for him- or herself • Self-monitoring • A measure of an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors • Propensity for risk taking • The willingness to take chances—a preference to assume or avoid risk • 自尊 • 自我監控 • 冒險傾向 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  19. Matching Personalities And Jobs Performance Person Job Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  20. Realistic真實性格 Prefers physical activities that require skill, strength, and coordination Investigative調查性格 Prefers activities involving thinking, organizing, and understanding Social社會性格 Prefers activities that involve helping and developing others Conventional傳統性格 Prefers rule-regulated, orderly and unambiguous activities Enterprising企業性格 Prefers verbal activities where there are opportunities to influence others and attain power Artistic藝術性 Prefers ambiguous and unsystematic activities that allow creative expression Holland’s Typology of Personality and Sample Occupations Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  21. Relationship Among Occupational Personality Types Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  22. Perception知覺 A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. • 個人經由整理及解釋感官印象，並賦予環境意義的過程。 • 每個人對同樣的事物，產生不同的知覺。 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  23. Personal characteristics個人特質 Attitudes Personality Motives Interests Past experiences Expectations Targetcharacteristics目標特質 Relationship of a target to its background Closeness and/or similarity to other things The context in objects is seen Other situational factors. Influences on Perception知覺的影響 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  24. Perceptual Challenges: What Do You See? EXHIBIT 8.5 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  25. How Managers Judge Employees • Attribution theory歸因理論 • A theory based on the premise that we judge people differently depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior解釋我們對於人的判斷不同，乃基於我們對特定行為有不同的歸因。 • Internally caused behavior is believed to be under the control of the individual.內在引發的行為，是那些被認為在個人控制之下的行為。 • Externally caused behavior results from outside causes; that is, the person is seen as having been forced into the behavior by the situation.外在引發的行為，是外界原因所造成的結果，也就是個人迫於情境而產生的行為。 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  26. Interpreting Behavior解讀行為 • Distinctiveness特異性 • Whether an individual displays a behavior in many situations or whether it is particular to one situation. 是否在許多不同情境下，或只有在特定情境下，才有這樣的行為表現。 • Consensus共通性 • If the individual responds in the same way as everyone else faced with a similar situation responds.每個人面對相似情境時，是否以同樣的方式應對 • Consistency一致性 • The individual engages in the same behaviors regularly and consistently over time.是否表現出一致的行為 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  27. The Process of Attribution Theory EXHIBIT 8.6 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  28. Judgment Errors • Fundamental attribution error基本歸因錯誤 • The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others. • Self-serving bias自我滿足的偏見 • The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors. Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  29. Distortions in Shortcut Methods in Judging Others判斷扭曲偏頗的情形 Selectivity選擇性 Assumed similarity假設有類同經驗 Stereotyping刻板（先入為主）印象 Halo effect光環效應 Self-fulfilling prophecy自我實現預言 EXHIBIT 8.7 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  30. Learning學習 Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience任何經由經驗所產生的較持久的行為改變。 Operant conditioning操作性制約(B. F. Skinner) • Voluntary, or learned, behavior is a function of its consequences行為是其結果的函數 • Reinforcement強化 increases the likelihood that behavior will be repeated; behavior that is not rewarded or is punished is less likely to be repeated. • Rewards 獎勵are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response. Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  31. Learning (cont’d) • Social learning theory社會學習理論 • People can learn through observation and direct experience; by modeling the behavior of others人們經由觀察和直接經驗來學習的理論；透過模擬別人行為的方式 • Modeling processes • Attentional processes • Retention processes • Motor reproduction processes • Reinforcement processes • 注意 • 留意 • 動作重現 • 強化 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  32. How to Shape Behavior如何塑造行為 • Shaping behavior • Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to a desired behavior系統化的強化每一系列的步驟，使個人逐漸趨近目標行為 • Four ways to shape behavior: • Positive reinforcement • Negative reinforcement • Punishment • Extinction. • 正向強化 • 負向強化 • 處罰 • 消弱 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  33. Foundations Of Group Behavior • Group群體 • Two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular objectives • Role角色 • A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone in a given position in a social unit某人在社會中擔任職位的一套行為模式 。 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  34. Foundations Of Group Behavior (cont’d) • Norms規範 • Acceptable standards (e.g., effort and performance, dress, and loyalty) shared and enforced by the members of a group群體中成員互相認同的標準 • Status地位 • A prestige grading, position, or rank within a group群體中較具聲望的成績、職位、階級 • May be informally conferred by characteristics such as education, age, skill, or experience. • Anything can have status value if others in the group admire it. Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  35. Why do People Join Groups? Security Status Self-esteem Affiliation Power Goal achievement Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  36. Examples of Cards Used in Asch Study Solomon Asch and Group Conformity:Does the desire to be accepted as a part of a group leave one susceptible to conforming to the group’s norms? Will the group exert pressure that is strong enough to change a member’s attitude and behavior? According to the research by Solomon Asch, the answer appears to be yes. EXHIBIT 8.9 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  37. Group Effects群體效應 • Social loafing社會虛擲 • The tendency of an individual in a group to decrease his or her effort because responsibility and individual achievement cannot be measured由於個人的責任及成就無法量測，成員會有降低自己努力的傾向。 • Group cohesiveness凝聚力 • The degree to which members of a group are attracted to each other and share goals • Size, work environment, length of time in existence, and group-organization goal congruency affect the degree of group cohesiveness. Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  38. The Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness and Productivity EXHIBIT 8.10 Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

  39. Management─ Foundations of Organizational Behaviors 吳明泉博士 2005

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