Assignment #2: Motivational Theories

1. Assignment #2: Motivational Theories Katie Nichiporuk IDDE 736

2. Outline • Description of motivational theories or models • Definitions of critical terms • How the theory informs instruction • Reflection on practice • Questions

3. ARCS ModelKeller • Used to help improve the motivational appeal of instructional materials, grounded in four major conditions. • Four Conditions: • Attention-the instructor uses strategies for arousing and sustaining curiosity and interest • Relevance-the instructor links the instruction to important needs, interests, and motives • Confidence-the instructor helps students develop a positive expectation for successful achievement of a learning task • Satisfaction-the instructor manages extrinsic and intrinsic reinforcement • There are different attributes that teachers need to consider when applying this theory in the classroom.  Teachers should ensure students have a readiness to learn, form assessments between stimuli and responses, associate learning and classroom activities with pleasing outcomes, reinforce desired behaviors and extinguish undesired ones, reinforce progress in learning and behavior, and make participation at valued activities contingent on working on less-valued ones. • As a teacher, implementing the ARCS Model would mean creating a learner centered and cooperative learning environment, relating content to daily lives, helping student establish achievable goals, using investigative work, providing feedback and step-by-step instructions, and providing  verbal praise and rewards. • Should you try to utilize all conditions when planning a lesson or is it more conducive to implement them all during a unit? (Small, n.d.)(Keller, 1987)(Pintrich & Schunk, 2002a)

4. Attribution TheoryWeiner et al. • A cognitive theory of motivation that suggests that individuals are conscious and rational decision makers. Based on two assumptions: individuals are motivated by a goal of understanding and mastering the environment and themselves and people are always trying to understand their environment and causes of their behavior and others. • Attributional Process • Antecedent conditions- environmental and personal factors • Perceived causes-attributions for ability, effort, luck, task difficulty, teacher, mood, health, fatigue, etc. • Causal dimensions-stability, locus, control • Psychological consequences-expectancy for success, affect, and self-efficacy Expectancy principal- changes in expectancy of success following an outcome are influenced by the perceived stability of the cause of the event Attributions can be grouped along three basic dimensions • Locus- is a cause internal or external • Stability-changeability of cause over time and situations that range from being stable or unstable • Controllability- perception of control (controllable vs. uncontrollable) • This theory helps teachers to understand their students and their behaviors. It gives teachers a specific theoretical model of how students’ perceptions of the reasons for their success or failure can influence their expectancy for success, their self-efficacy, and their actual achievement behavior. It is all about getting to know the student. • This theory does not change my practice of teaching because I always started my school year off with getting to know you activities. I also promoted a community of learners within my classroom. I do need to remember that each individual is motivated by different factors and behavior plays a major role in this.  This is why it is important to individualize instruction because students are motivated to master the environment and themselves. • What is the best way to determine the attributions of a student? (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002a)

5. Expectancy Model of Achievement MotivationEccles & Wigfield • This model focuses on the role of students’ expectancies for academic success and their perceived value for academic tasks. Heckhausen added that there are different approaches to motivation and they are situation-outcome, action-outcome, action-by-situation outcome, and outcome-consequence. Feather also added to this model by broadening the conceptualization of value. • Predictors of achievement behavior • Expectancy- future expectations for success • Task value- academic task worth pursuing Expectancy value- beliefs about ability as individual evaluations of their competence in different areas ( Ability beliefs- broad beliefs about competence in a given domain, in contrast to one’s expectations for success on a task 4 components of task-value • Attainment value- personal importance of doing well on a task • Intrinsic value- enjoyment the individual gets from performing the activity or the subjective interest the individual has in the subject • Utility value- how well a task relates to current and future goals • Cost value- negative aspects of engaging in a task • This model informs instruction because teachers learn that students with positive self- perceptions of their competence and positive expectancies will be more likely to perform better and learn more, as well as engage in an adaptive manner on academic tasks.  Students who value and are interested in the academic tasks are more likely to choose similar tasks in the future as well as perform better, learn more, and be more adaptively engaged in tasks. • As a teacher, I need to help students choose a task based upon their interests because they will more likely do better.  if their expectancy for success is high, they are most likely to succeed and perform well.  It is all about maintaining high morale and striving for goals. • What is the best way to help students think about achievable goals and future expectations for success? (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002) (Gabrielle, 2003)

6. Achievement Goal Theory • Depending on subjective purposes, achievement goals differentially influence school achievement via variations in the quality of cognitive self-regulation processes. • Cognitive self-regulation-students being actively engaged in their own learning • Teachers need to use instruction to drive motivation internally. Once students accomplish their achievement goals, they will influence quality, timing, and appropriateness of cognitive strategies. This will then control the quality of one’s accomplishments. • My ideas about teaching and learning have changed with this model because I have learned about the importance of academic and pro-social goals working together. Also, I have learned that behavior is best understood in terms of the moment-to-moment changes in the relative strength of these motives. • If achievement goals influence cognitions and ultimately achievement, how can we assure that students create achievable goals? (Covington, 2000)

7. Self-Worth TheoryCovington • When students adopt achievement goals (learner oriented or performance oriented), they reflect a life-spanning struggle to establish and maintain a sense of worth and belonging. Mental health is a key determinant of the relation of expectancies and values to achievement behaviors. • Related vocabulary • Self-worth protection-general strategy of withholding effort when risking failure, so that the perceived causes of failure remain ambiguous owing to the possibility that not trying is the culprit rather than incompetency. • Self-handicapping behavior-creation of some impediment to one's performance so individual has a ready excuse for potential failure. • Defensive pessimism- individuals maintain unrealistically low expectations for ever succeeding or discount the importance of an assignment, all in an effort to minimize feelings of anxiety that might otherwise overwhelm their studies if they took an assignment seriously. • During instruction, teachers need to know how their students define success. This is an important factor because it affects self-esteem and achievement. Within the school and classroom, students need to feel a sense of worth and believe that they are academically competent. • Teachers need to remember that poor performance is often less the result of anxiety interfering with the retention  of information than anxious students typically learn less because they are anxious.  "Different types of students suffer different deficits and require different kinds of treatment" (p. 187). As an instructor, this theory promotes the idea of differentiated instruction and puts a focus on effort, mastery, and improvement. • How can you ensure that students do not become anxious within the classroom? (Covington, 2000) (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002)

8. Self-Efficacy Theory • Social cognitive model of motivation focused on the role of perceptions of efficacy and human agency • Self-efficacy- individuals' confidence in their ability to organize and execute a given course of action to solve a problem or accomplish a task • Instructors must take into consideration that a student’s efficacy expectations are directly related to goal setting, activity choice, willingness to expend effort, and persistence. All of these traits need to be addressed when structuring content and instruction. • As a teacher, explanations about goal setting, activity choice, effort, and persistence would be an important addition to lesson components. Information must be front-loaded, so that students can then accomplish their efficacy expectations. • What can we do as teachers to help young students learn how to create an organized path in order to accomplish a task?  How should students be taught these steps? (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002)

9. Locus of Control TheoriesRotter • An expectancy-based theory where the belief is that a person can succeed at something if they feel in control of their successes and failures. • Elaboration on perceived control • Means-ends beliefs- a particular cause can produce a particularoutcome • Control beliefs- the expectationthat a desiredevent can be produced • Agency beliefs- onehasaccess to the meansneeded to produce an outcome • Duringinstruction, teachersneed to rememberthatstudentswillfeel more confidentwhenthey are in control of theirachievementoutcomes. Lessonsshould be structured, providedautonomy, and promoteinvolvement. Choiceactivities are alwaysimportant. • Thistheoryrelatesdirectly to motivationalstrategiesthat are beingused in schools.  Childrenwill be fullyengaged once theirneeds are fulfilled.  Whentheirneeds are notmet, theywillbecomedisaffected and unmotivated. Therefore, itisimportant to remember to create lessonsthat are engaging and promoteactiveparticipation. • How can you help a studentfeel in control of theirsuccesses and failures? (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002)

10. Self-Determination TheoryDeci & Ryan • This theory involves the integration of two perspectives on human motivation: people are motivated to maintain a high level of stimulation and people have basic needs for competence and personal causation (self-determination). • The self-determination theory incorporates external to internalized regulation through the regulation of behavior from outside to inside the individual. • External- regulation comes from outside the individual • Introjected-internal regulation based on feelings that one has to do behavior • Identified-internal regulation based on the utility of that behavior • Integrated-regulation based on what the individual thinks is valuable and important to the self • Instruction needs to promote self-determination by creating challenging activities. When participating in these types of activities, the students will become naturally intrinsically motivated. • This theory has changed my perceived view about teaching and learning because I always was told that activities should be constructed at the level of the learner and never made too challenging. This theory helps to challenge students to bring out intrinsic motivation. As a result, teachers need to help students to think about what is valuable and important to themselves and how this affects their self-determination. • What if a student does not have a basic need for competence or personal causation? How can this theory work with them? (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002)

11. Cognitive Evaluation TheoryDeci & Ryan *Subtheoryof self-determination theory • This theory is situated in the belief that interpersonal events and structures can enhance intrinsic motivation because they allow satisfaction for competence. • Intrinsic motivation- doing an activity for inherent satisfaction • To facilitate intrinsic motivation, instruction must provide challenges, promote feedback, and be free from demeaning evaluations. Classrooms and home environments can both affect intrinsic motivation because autonomy and competence can be either supported or thwarted. In order for intrinsic motivation to occur, all activities must hold intrinsic interest for the individual. • To maintain or enhance intrinsic motivation, students must experience behavior to be self-determined and experience self-efficacy.  Instructional content must provide choice and opportunity for self-direction. • What happens when a classroom promotes intrinsic motivation, but a home environment thwarts it? (Ryan & Deci, 2000)

12. Organismic Integration TheoryDeci & Ryan *Subtheoryof self-determination theory • This theory details the different forms of external motivation and the contextual factors that promote or hinder internalization and integration of the regulation for these behaviors • Contextual Factors • Amotivation-lacking an intention to act • External regulation-behaviors performed to satisfy an external demand or obtain an externally imposed reward contingency • Introjectedregulation-regulation by contingent self-esteem • Identification-identified with the personal importance of a behavior that students accept as his or her own • Integrated regulation-identified regulation has been fully assimilated to the self • It is important for school environments to create a community where students feel safe because children are more likely to be extrinsically motivated if they are valued by people who they feel connected with.  Instruction needs to involve getting to know you activities. • The number one priority under this theory is for teachers to understand where their students are coming from and who they are as a person. Teachers need to respect and care for their students.  This promotes internalization and integration because teachers are providing a meaningful rationale for an uninteresting behavior, along with supports for autonomy and relatedness. • Are their any types of programs or curriculums that are available that provide ideas about how to integrate getting to know you activities into lesson content? (Ryan & Deci, 2000)

13. Flow TheoryCsikszentmihalyi • When people are engaged in an activity, they have a feeling of being immersed in and carried by that activity. They merge action and awareness. They focus their attention on a limited stimulus field. They lack self-consciousness, and they feel in control of their actions and their environment.  A state of equilibrium is established between the amount of challenge in activities and an individual's capabilities. • Relation of flow to other human motives: 2x2 classification • Closed goals- determined by genetics or socialization • Open goals-developed from experience and cannot be explained by pre-existing factors • Interindividualprocesses-social • Intraindividualprocesses-refers to the person • Flow-personal process and reflects open systemic goals • Instruction needs to reinforce the behaviors that are underlying the development.  Teachers need to create lessons that will promote flow, so that the experience shows a reward that ensures that individuals will seek to increase their competence. • Teachers need to ensure that all instructional activities make the students get involved and engaged, so that they are immersed in it and can go through the steps of Flow Theory. • How can you ensure that all students will feel involved and engaged to ensure that flow occurs? (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002) (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002b)

14. Emergent Motivation • Emergent motivation is motivation stemming from the discovery of new goals and rewards as a consequence of interacting with the environment • Emergent motivation is governed by... • Intrinsic forces-grow out of individual beliefs that an activity or outcome is worth striving for its own sake • Extrinsic forces-preprogrammed biologically or derived from reward structure in which individual is socialized • Teachers need to remember that emergent motivation is established when students experience daily life in terms of their affect and emotions. Therefore, instruction needs to arouse enjoyment and engagement for the students. As a result, the students will learn more because they are invested in what they are learning. • In order to incorporate this model into my instruction, I must make sure that I address a variety of strategies. These strategies could easily be integrated into any lesson plan… • match task challenges to student expertise • provide opportunities for control and action • create a positive emotional climate • tasks with structured goals • opportunities for feedback • To ensure emergent motivation, must a teacher incorporate all of these strategies? How many would make it sufficient? (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002b)

15. Interest Theories • Interest theories are based upon motivational interest connected to feelings or personal significance • Related vocabulary • Individual interest- stable evaluative orientation towards certain domains • Personal interest-personality trait or personal characteristic that is relatively stable, enduring disposition that is individually directed toward a specific activity or topic • Situational Interest- emotional state aroused by specific features of an activity or task • Actualized individual Interest-personal interest interacts with the interesting environmental features to produce psychological state of interest • Feeling Related Valence- feelings that are associated with an object or activity • Value Related Valence-attribution of personal significance or importance to an object or activity • Interest is related to indicators of deep-level learning, so teachers must create academic tasks that create interest.  To arouse interest and build upon comprehension and recall, teachers can use strategies such as personal relevance, novelty, activity level, and comprehensibility.  There are a few strategies that can be used when creating lessons… • original source materials • model enthusiasm and interest for content • create surprise and disequilibrium • use variety and novelty • provide choice • integrate student personal interest into lessons • This theory is closely related to the ARCS Model because becoming familiar with one's interest, needs, and motives is a component of the relevance condition.  Teachers need to spark interest in order to get students actively engaged in a the topic and content.  I think this theory is much easier to apply in a one-on-one setting rather than whole group because of the variety of interests and individuals that need to be accounted for. • How can teachers always engage all students through their interests when students’ interests all vary?   (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002) (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002b)

16. Goal Theories • Goal theories account for achievement goals and their relationship to achievement behavior • Two goal patterns • Ego involved goals- maximize favorable evaluations of their competence and minimize negative evaluations of competence (Performance goals-outperform others and perform tasks they can do) • Task involved goals- individuals focus on mastering tasks and increasing their competence (Learning goals-challenging task and individuals concerned with own progress) • For instruction to involvement goal theories, it needs to be goal oriented. Teachers need to help students establishshort-term and long-term goals. Not only does instruction need to occur about instituting goals, but also about how to accomplish the goals that you set in place. • In my opinion, learners should be intrinsically motivated to accomplish a goal because they would feel a sense of pride in finishing and doing well, but teachers need to also explain to students what needs to occur when the intended outcome is not met or the task was not done well.  It is important to stress to students that not accomplishing a goal is not always seen as a failure. • How can teachers promote the idea of goal setting and the importance goals have? (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002)

17. Motivational Opportunities ModelHardré • MOM is both a conceptual and procedural framework.  Conceptual in that it is understanding motivational theories and strategies.  Procedural in that it integrates theories and strategies into the design of learning and performance environment. • SUCCESS process of implementation in design and performance improvement • S-situational • U-utilization • C-competence • C-content • E-emotion • S-systemic • S-social • This model helps to informinstructionbecauseitprovides a model and process for implementingmotivatingopportunities in design and performance improvement.  Teachers can follow the SUCCESS mnemonic to rememberhow to implementthismodel. Instruction must makesurethatitattends to motivationalelementssuchaspromotingrelevance, value, utility, success expectations, and otherperceptions. • IfI were to implementthisintomypractice, I wouldneed to remember to do certainstepsduringdifferentpoints in the instructionalprocess.  For pre-instruction, I wouldneed to seek information regarding the learner, task, and performance context.  Duringinstruction, I wouldneed to motivate the learner to become and stay engaged.  I wouldalsoneed to create authenticcontext fidelity to fostermotivation for actual use of knowledge and skillsbeinglearned.  Finallyduring post-instruction, I wouldneed to focus on success in performance, both short-term and long-term. • Whatis the best way to incoporateeachstep of this model intoeverylesson? (Hardré, 2009)

18. References Covington, M.  (2000).  Goal theory motivation and school achievement: An integrative  review.  Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 171-200. Eccles, J. & Wigfield, A.  (2002).  Motivational beliefs, values, and goals.  Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 109-132. Gabrielle, D. M. (2003). The effects of technology-mediated instructional strategies on     motivation, performance, and self-directed learning. Proceedings of the   Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE) ED- MEDIA Conference, Honolulu. Hardré, P.  (2009).  The motivating opportunities for performance and success: Design, development and instructional implications.  Performance Improvement Quarterly, 22(1), 5-26. Keller, J.M. (1987a). Development and the use of the ARCS model of instructional design.    Journal of instructional development, 10(3), 2-10. Pintrich, P.R. & Schunk, D.H.  (2002a). Motivation: Introduction and historical foundations. In Motivation Education: Theory, Research, and Application (2nd ed.).   Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Merrill. Pintrich, P.R. & Schunk, D.H.  (2002b). The role of interest and affect in achievement motivation. In Motivation Education: Theory, Research, and Application (2nd ed.).   Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Merrill. Ryan, R. & Deci, E. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54-67. Small, R.  (n.d.).  Designing motivation into library and information skills instruction.  Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/aasl/aaslpubsandjournals/slmrb/ slmrcontents/ volume11998slmqo/small