Enforcement of the terms of the treaties

1. Enforcement of the terms of the treaties

2. Overview • The UK and the US showed no enthusiasm for the Treaty of Versailles (T of V) after it was signed. • They had no desire to enforce its provisions. • This was influenced by their traditional policies of isolationism and the views of the treaties’ harshness.

3. Overview contd. • The French lost the Anglo-American Guarantee (Pg 43) and had to try and enforce the treaty alone. • The failure of enforcement allowed Germany to evade the Treaty and plan its demise at any moment. • The disarmament conferences that were organized after the war in the spirit of the 14 points were not successful – due to a lack of co-operation and a failure to resolve issues supporting expanded arms programs.

4. US isolationism • US isolationism goes back to the time of George Washington -“avoid foreign entanglements” • Over the years people had come to the US to escape Europe and its conflicts. • The physical separation of the US and Europe also created a psychological barrier as well – the US saw itself as a better society than Europe.

5. US isolationism contd. • The US had a hemispheric mentality as demonstrated by the Monroe Doctrine and Manifest Destiny. • The purpose was to give control of the western hemisphere to the US and to exclude all foreign influences. • The US did not keep large armies in peacetime and did not want to intervene outside its own areas of interest.

6. US isolationism contd. • At the end of WW1 the US was the wealthiest and most powerful economic entity in the world. • All the Allied nations were in debt to her financially and she had saved the Allies from defeat. • Wilson saw this as a chance for American intervention to prevent any future wars and change the ways international relations were carried out.

7. US isolationism contd. • Wilson thought his Fourteen Points and formation of the League of Nations would create a new international order. • American involvement would be vital and would allow the US to be a leader in creating a new peaceful and progressive system of international relationships. • This is in line with the American view that they were a utopian society and an inspiration for the rest of the world.

8. US isolationism contd. • Wilson was unable to get the T of V ratified in the US senate . • The US did not join the League of Nations. (See Margaret Macmillan’s comments on pg 43) • There was no consensus on America’s role in the world, some wanted a return to isolationism others wanted the US to participate in world affairs.

9. US isolationism contd. • In addition the US did not ratify the Anglo-American Guarantee, made to ensure French security in case of a German attack. • These decisions along with the election of Warren Harding (“return to normalcy”) meant that the US was returning to its traditional policy of isolationism.

10. The Anglo-American Guarantee • The French were worried about their future security against another German attack. • The French proposed to take the Rhineland from Germany which the US and the UK could not agree to. • The US and the UK realized that France would not be satisfied unless it had a guarantee of military support.

11. Guarantee contd. • The US and UK pledged to come to the aid of France if Germany attacked. • This agreement was against Wilson’s principles that a League of Nations would prevent the need for such guarantees to be signed. • The Anglo-American Guarantee was never ratified by the US senate and never came into force, as a result of this Britain withdrew from military commitment to France.

12. British isolationism • The British throughout their history were isolationists, who avoided commitments to other nations. (Splendid isolationism) • The British were ready to intervene in European affairs and their policy was to intervene against any power seeking dominance of Europe. • They refused to tie themselves to one country or group of countries.

13. British isolationism contd. • There was a fear in the UK that France would try and dominate Europe. • There was a reluctance to support France as it looked like it would be dragged into another conflict with Germany.(France was supporting Poland and the Little Entente) • The British were not prepared to go to war to defend an unfair treaty. • They were also reluctant to be dragged into another horrific war.

14. Consider the following questions. • What encourages countries to intervene in international crises? • What are the motives that encourage either individuals or nations to make sacrifices in defense of a principle or to correct a wrong? • Why was it possible for American idealists to reject the Versailles settlements? • What human motives might be involved in the decisions to support or reject the Versailles settlements? • Do nations always base their actions on self-interest? Do individuals?

15. Disarmament – The Washington Naval Conference and the Far East • The arms race was one of the major causes of the outbreak of WW1 and was targeted by Wilson in his Fourteen Points. • It was a goal of the Paris settlements and the L of N to reduce armaments and limit the threat of war. • Ironically the US did not join the L of N who organized the most successful disarmament conference of the post-war period.

16. Disarmament contd. • After WW1 the arms race continued with the US, UK and Japan spending large amounts of money to expand their navies. • The naval race was caused by the American desire to have a “fleet second to none” and… • The British had always traditionally had the world’s largest fleet as a matter of security and Japan wanted to defend herself and her new empire and to increase her international stature.

17. Reasons for Conference • The decision to call a conference on the naval arms race was based on two major issues: • The cost of the arms race, neither the UK or Japan could afford it and America wanted to reduce its spending. • The other reason was the need to diffuse the tension between Japan and the USA in Asia and the fact that this may turn into a major conflict.

18. Japan/US – conflict? • Japan and the US were suspicious of each other’s intentions in China and the Far East. • The situation worsened after the war because Japan had expanded their territory and sought further dominance of China. • The loss of trade and the threat to US possessions in the Philippines were increasing tensions and the talk of war between the two was becoming more common.

19. UK - Conflict? • Japan was threatened by the US naval build-up and the reluctance of the US to recognize her position in Asia. • The UK was worried as it had a defensive alliance with Japan since 1902 and did not want to be dragged into a war on the side of Japan against the US. • This encouraged the UK to support the naval disarmament conference and a resolution of tensions in the far East. • The UK was also under pressure from Canada and Australia to end the Anglo-Japanese Alliance and avoid conflict with America.

20. Washington Conference • The Washington Conference (1921-2) was the most successful of the post-war disarmament conferences. (although they were limited and not permanent) • This was the norm for post-war disarmament conferences which produced limited and short-term results. • The most vital point to make about these conferences were that they cannot succeed in a vacuum.

21. Reasons? • The reasons for arms races must be addressed before disarmament can occur. • In a world where nations distrusted each other, had grievances or territorial ambitions, disarmament stood little chance. • Germany, Russia, Italy and Japan saw rearmament as a way to address their grievances. • Believing that disarmament could take place under such circumstances was foolish and may have encouraged aggression rather than prevented it.

22. The Washington Agreements - Terms • The most important agreement was the decision to limit the size of battleships, cruisers and aircraft carriers. • The USA, UK and Japan agreed to a ratio of 5:5:3, all nations were to destroy battleships until the fleet size was reached. • No new battleships were to be built for 10 years.

23. Terms contd. • The construction of naval bases in the Pacific was limited. • This gave Japan dominance in the Eastern Pacific. • This reduced the possibility of conflict as neither the USA or UK could establish new bases there.

24. Success at the conference • It resulted in the destruction of weapons and placed limits on future armament. • It was the beginning of further disarmament negotiations which would cover other types of weapons. • The weapons reduction took place because the underlying political issues that had caused the arms race were resolved.

25. Two agreements • Two agreements were signed; The Four Power Agreement and the Nine Power agreement. • The purpose was to reduce tension in the Far East and limit the possibility of conflict.

26. The Four Power Agreement • USA, UK , France and Japan. • This replaced the Anglo-Japanese Alliance and ensured the rights of all signatories to their colonies in Asia. • They all agreed to defend each other in the event of an external attack.

27. The Nine Power Agreement • UK, Japan, US, France, China, Italy, Belgium, Portugal and Netherlands. • It confirmed the Open Door policy for trade in China and guaranteed its territorial integrity. • This agreement collapsed with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931.

28. United Kingdom - benefits • The Conference was viewed positively by the public as progress towards peace seemed to be made. • All the countries also gained some benefits either strategic and/or financial. • The UK had avoided an expensive naval race that it had felt obliged to enter at the expense to her domestic economy.

29. UK benefits contd. • The UK also got out of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance which removed a source of conflict with the US. • This was achieved without offending Japan. • This was a good thing because they were very attached to the alliance and would likely have reacted badly to any British moves to end it.

30. Japan - benefits • Japan was unhappy that it had a smaller fleet than both the UK and the US, however Japan benefitted the most from the conference. • It gained tremendous security because no new GB or US bases could be built within 3000 miles of its borders. • This gave Japan control of the eastern Pacific and China in the event of any disputes.

31. Success! • The US was able to reduce its spending on armaments. • The US also decided to retreat into isolation. • These two factors reduced the possibility of friction and conflict in the Pacific.

32. Success contd. • The success of the agreements depended upon the co-operation of the countries involved as they had no enforcement provisions. • They were successful because the nations involved all felt that they had some success. • The small number of participants also made it easier to reach agreement. • The timing was important because there was great public support for disarmament after ww1.

33. Pitfalls • The agreements were vaguely worded. • This might mean it could be easily ignored if one or more nations found themselves in changed circumstances where the agreements no longer served their best interests. • This situation occurred in the case of Japan’s invasion of Manchuria in 1931.

34. Missing countries • It is extremely important to note that the agreements did not include two major powers: Germany and USSR. • Both these nations wanted to increase their armaments and military strength in the future. • This would prove a challenge to the whole concept of disarmament.

35. The London Naval Conference • This was the third in a series of meetings to reduce the naval armaments of the major powers. • In 1930 the five major naval powers – the UK, USA, Japan, Italy and France- met in London to revise and extend the agreement reached in 1922 in Washington. • The first meeting was the Washington Conference in 1921, another conference in Geneva in 1927 had failed to reach an agreement.

36. The Treaty • The treaty changed the ratio of ships established in Washington to 10:10:7 for the UK, USA and Japan. • France and Italy refused to take part in this agreement but agreed not to build any new ships for five years. • Agreements were made regarding the size and number of cruisers, destroyers and submarines that each country could possess. • Submarines were not allowed to sink ships unless the crew and passengers had been removed to safety. • The treaty remained in effect until 1936.

37. Reasons for success • The world was in the midst of the Great Depression and countries were looking for ways to reduce their spending on weapons. • In the democratic countries spending on defense was not popular compared to relief programs. • In light of the economic crisis it was easy to reduce spending despite the protests of the naval officers.

38. The London Naval Treaty, 1936 • The major powers met to renegotiate the London treaty of 1930 which expired in 1936. • The conference was a failure – Japan and Italy walked out. • Japan demanded an equal ratio with the USA and the UK.

39. The London Naval Treaty, 1936 contd. • The UK, France and the USA signed a treaty to limit the size of warships. • This collapsed after 1936 in view of the Japanese and German rearmament programs. • Another reason for its collapse was the increasing number of conflicts and crises in the world.

40. The Geneva Disarmament Conference, 1932-4 • The Paris Peace Settlement limited armaments for Germany and its allies. • Wilson’s Fourteen Points also advocated disarmament. • Public support for disarmament was encouraged by a number of factors.

41. Public support: reasons • The League of Nations and the idea of collective security would lead to a more peaceful world. • The belief that arms races had been a major cause of the war and reducing arms would reduce the chance of war. • The cost of arms at a time when nations were struggling to recover financially after the war.

42. Public support contd. • The peaceful 1920’s had given the illusion that the risk of war had been greatly reduced – nations no longer needed large armies. • The optimism of the Locarno Pact. • The success of the Kellogg-Briand Agreement.

43. Public support contd. • The League of Nations promoted world disarmament as its mandate to support world peace. • The League held a world disarmament conference in Geneva in 1932. • Thirty-one nations attended including the USA and the USSR who were not member s of the League.

44. Problems for the Geneva conference • The Great Depression had reduced the optimism of the 1920’s. • There was an increasing demand to revise the Paris Peace Settlements. • Nations were fearful of their own security and did not want to commit to disarmament.

45. Further problems.. • The problem between the definition of an offensive weapon and a defensive weapon! • The US said if all offensive weapons were destroyed nations would feel more secure. • This argument led to many frustrating debates which undermined the conference.

46. Problems with enforcement • The conference had no enforcement methods in place. • There was no official organization to oversee nations compliance to the terms of disarmament. • This is clearly illustrated with the Rapallo Treaty in 1922 which enabled Germany to evade the disarmament clauses of the T of V.

47. Further problems • Disarmament would never work unless all the nations felt secure to do it. • France refused to disarm without a guarantee of support of protection from Germany. • The UK and other refused to give such support and France refused to consider reducing its arms, especially as Germany was resurgent.

48. Germany’s role • Germany used the conference to expose the hypocrisy of the other countries. • It said all countries should disarm to the German level or allow Germany to match their military forces. • No country supported these proposals so Germany withdrew from the Geneva conference in July 1932.

49. Hitler’s role • Germany rejoined the conference in 1933 but Hitler was now the chancellor of Germany. • He demanded equal treatment and when this did not happen, Germany withdrew from the conference and shortly after the League. • Hitler had no interest in disarmament.

50. Hitler contd. • The unwillingness of the powers to give him equal treatment gave him a valid excuse to rearm. • It made the French look uncooperative, as they had refused to consider arms reduction. • Although the French had no choice as they did not receive any support from UK or USA.