PIE

1. PIE CHANGES

2. the unattested and & partly reconstructed language • A set of common features shared by most or all of its dialects/subdivisions • considered to have vanished around 2000 BC = nowritten records. • Details:especially the sound pattern =remain the subject of debate, • Newtheories of time and place of the original Indo-Europeans = stillproposed. • the era of PIE -3000 BC to until shortly after 2000 BC (archeological and linguisticevidence). • the break-up of the community of original speakers of PIE can be dated from the earliest records in Indo-European languages. The Indo-European language family

3. IE LANGUAGES

4. the language family/ family of families, of which English is a member + other European languages, such as French, German, Russian, Spanish, etc. • Asian languages: Bengali, Hindi, and Persian • Classical languages – e.g., Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit • the most extensively spoken group of languages worldwide • Similarities among certain languages of Europe Asia resulted from a common origin had attracted scholars for several centuries • the British scholar Sir William Jones (1786)= Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek share features derived from ‘some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists’. Germanic languages alsohave the same source. The IE languages

5. an unrecorded PIE offshoot (aka Primitive Germanic) • up to the early Christian era = probably 1 language (only minor dialectal differences) • groups migrate into various parts of Europe, dialectal differences develop rapidly • PGMCbranches off around 100 BC. • PGMC - no records before itssubdivision into eastern, western, and northern groups • the earliest records: runic inscriptions = (3c/4c) = Scandinavian written texts = Gothic (4-5c). The PROTO-Germanic

6. THE GERMANIC FAMILY

7. English, Dutch, Frisian, German, the Scandinavian languages (Danish, Faeroese, Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish) • + a number of derived languages (Yiddish << German, Afrikaans << Dutch) • + the extinct Burgundian, Gothic, Norn, and Vandalic. • Branches of Germanic: • (1) East Germanic: extinct Gothic (till 16c) • (2) North Germanic: the modern & ancient Scandinavian languages • (3) West Germanic: English, German, Dutch, Flemish, Frisian (+ the languages from which they have developed) THE GERMANIC FAMILY

8. the philological method: compares the same text written in different periods of language history • the internal reconstruction method: looks at synchronic variation as a remnant of some older regular form • the comparative method: groups words withrelated form and meaning to reconstruct their proto-forms METHODS OF HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS

9. Proto-Indo-European, c. 3000-2000 BC • Proto-Germanic = Primitive Germanic up to 100 BC (up to 500 BC it was phonetically uniform) • (North-)West Germanic, c. 100 BC up to c. 300 AD • Anglo-Frisian, the period of Anglo-Frisian linguistic unity, c. 300-450 • Primitive Old English = Pre-Old English/ Prehistoric Old English, c. 450-700 • Early Old English, c. 700-900 • Late Old English, c. 900-1100 PIE TO OE – STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

10. Consonants: • voiceless plosives /p t k kw*/ short vowels /i e o u a/ • voiced unaspirated plosives /b d ɡ ɡw*/ long vowels /iː eː oː uː aː/ • voiced aspirated plosives /bh dhɡhɡwh*/diphthongs /eieuoiouai au/ • fricatives /s/ • resonants nasals /m n/ (could function either as consonants or as vowels) • liquids /r l/ • semivowels /w j/ (* labio-velar stops) THE PIE SOUND SYSTEM

11. centum & Satem languages several families (related by common descendant from one / other early offshoot) • classified as satem and centum languages • = the development of the IE word for ‘hundred’ with /k/ as in Latin centum or /s/ as in Sanskrit satem. Centum: Satem: Latin centumSanskrit šatá Gothihund Polishsto Irish cētLithuanian šimtas • the satem language families: Indo-Iranian, Thraco-Phrygian, Illyrian, Balto-Slavonic • the centum language families: Celtic, Germanic, Hellenic, Italic PIE >> PGMC – CONSONANTAL CHANGES

12. The First Germanic Consonant Shift – a statement of a relationship between certain consonants in Germanic languages and their originals in PIE (1818 - the Danish philologist Rasmus Rask ) Set out in detail in 1822 by the German philologist Jacob Grimm. • PIE voiceless plosives >> Germanic voiceless fricatives: • PIE /p t k kw/ > /ɸ θ x xw/ > PGmc /f þ x xw/, e.g. • Lat. pedis Eng. foot • Lat. tres Eng. three • Lat. canis Eng. Hound • PGmc /þ/ > OE /θ/ • PGmc /x/ > OE /h/ [h, x] • PGmc /xw/ > EOE /hw/, /h/ • PIE voiced unaspirated plosives >> Germanic voiceless plosives: • PIE /b d ɡ ɡw/ > PGmc /p t k kw/, e.g. • Lat. turba OE þorp • Lat. dentis Eng. tooth • Lat. granumEng. Corn • PGmc /kw/ > EOE /kw/, /k/ • PIE voiced aspirated plosives became Germanic voiced unaspirated plosives: • PIE /bh dhɡhɡwh/ > /β ð ɣ ɣw/ > PGmc /b d ɡ ɡw/, e.g. • Lat. hostis* Eng. guest • *IE voiced aspirates changed to fricatives in Latin • PGmc /ɡ/ > OE /ɡ/ [ɡ, ɣ] • PGmc /ɡw/ > EOE /ɡ/, /w/ GRIMM’S LAW – 1ST GERMANIC SHIFT

13. G’sL do not operate when the plosive is preceded by another voiceless stop / /s/, e.g.: • PIE */kapt-/ > OE hæft ‘captive’ Lat. captus • PIE */nokt-/ > OE neaht ‘night’ Lat. nox • PIE */ɡhostis/ > OE giest ‘guest’ Lat. hostis • PIE */medhu/ > OE meodu‘mead’ Pol. miód Skt. mádhu • PIE */tr-n-/ > OE þorn ‘thorn’ Pol. cierń Skt. tŕna- • PIE */bhraːtor/ > OE brōþor ‘brother’ Pol. bratSkt. bhrātr GRIMM’S LAW - EXCEPTIONS

14. The evolution of certain consonants in Germanic languages already affected by Grimm’s Law 1875 - the Danish philologist Karl Verner It explains a set of apparent exceptions to Grimm’s Law PGmc voiceless fricatives are voiced when the immediately preceding vowel does not carry the main word stress and had no adjacent voiceless consonants Verner’s Law holds that PIE voiceless fricatives >> Germanic voiced fricatives: /ɸ θ s x xw/ > /β ð z ɣ ɣw/, e.g. PIE */pətér/ > PGmc */fəθér/ > PGmc */fəðer/ > OE fæder > PDE father consonants that change in accordance with Verner’s Law undergo further changes: original/s/ >> /z/ >> /r/ =rhotacism First Consonant Shift=Grimm’s Law+Verner’s Law, e.g. voiced aspirated plosives became voiced fricatives: /bh dhɡhɡwh/ > /β ð ɣ ɣw/ voiceless plosives became voiceless fricatives: /p t k kw/ > /ɸ θ x xw/ /f þ x xw/ Second Consonant Shift= German, e.g. Eng. penny – Ger. Pfennig Eng. copper – Ger. Kupfer Eng. dead – Ger. tot VERNER’S LAW = GRAMMATICAL SOUND CHANGE

15. the so-called ɑ ~ o merger • it reduced the number of long and short vowels to 4 each • the vowels /ɑ/ & /o/ have a long history of instability in Germanic languages: • ɑ ~ o merger: 2 processes in operation working in opposite directions: • /aː/ > /oː/, e.g. • PIE */bhraːtor/> PGmc */broːþor/>OE brōþor • /o/ > /a/, e.g. PIE */oktoːu/>PGmc */ahta/>OE eahta PIE TO PGMC – VOCALIC CHANGES

16. PIE stress = free (free pitch) • PGMCstress = fixed on the basis of loudness PIE >> PGMC - STRESS

17. nominative genitive dative  ablative locative accusative instrumental  vocative PIE >> PGMCE – CASE SYSTEM

18. originally 2 genders: animate: • masculine • feminine inanimate: • neuter PIE – GENDER

19. first (speaker) • second (addressee) • third (anything else) PERSON

20. Number • singular • dual • plural Mood • indicative • subjunctive • optative • injunctive • imperative  PIE – NUMBER & MOOD

21. Voice • active • middle • passive  Aspect • present Tense • future • imperfect • perfect • past (= preterit) • aorist • pluperfect PIE – VOICE/ASPECT/TENSE

22. Pie Classes ofstrong verbs: - 7 classes? = number of classes uncertain Pgmc verbs: - strongverbs - weak verbs = Germanic innovation  PIE VERBAL SYSTEM >> PGMC

23. Grimm’s Law &Verner’s Law • fixed word stress on the root syllable • weak verbs with past tense in [t] or [d] (dental preterite) • two-tense verbal system • strong and weak adjectival declensions   THE MOST IMPORTANT CHANGES FROM PIE TO PGMC