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Chapter Fifteen Groundwater. Groundwater. Earth’s hydrosphere extends from top of atmosphere to ~ 10 km (6 mi) below the Earth’s surface. Groundwater, 0.6% of world’s water, accounts for 97% of Earth’s supply of unfrozen water.
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Groundwater • Earth’s hydrosphere extends from top of atmosphere to ~ 10 km (6 mi) below the Earth’s surface. Groundwater, 0.6% of world’s water, accounts for 97% of Earth’s supply of unfrozen water. • Surface waters from rivers, lakes or precipitation enter the ground under the influence of gravity • The amount of water that enters the ground depends on the topography, geologic composition and vegetation • The surface water will percolate downwards until it reaches a zone where all the pore spaces are saturated with water
Movement and Distribution of GW • Water bound to clay minerals • Zone of aeration: unsaturated zone • Zone of Saturation • Water Table: Upper surface of the zone of saturation • Capillary Fringe: Lower part of the aeration zone – range from few tens of cm to several meters
Groundwater Movement • For groundwater to flow- need porous and permeable materials • Porosity is the percent of pore spaces in relation to the total soil/rock/sediment volume (Primary Porosity: Porosity that develops as a rock forms; Secondary Porosity: Develops after a rock has formed) • Permeability is a measure of the ability of rock/sediment to transmit fluid • Groundwater flow occurs when there is a hydraulic gradient • Hydraulic conductivity is the ability to transmit groundwater. Typical groundwater flow is slow ~0.5 – 1.5 cm/day (0.2 - 0.6 in/day). The slow movement stores the water making it available to humans.
Tapping Groundwater aquifer • Groundwater depth is a reflection of local topography and prevailing climate • Aquifers are permeable water-bearing bodies of geologic materials • Unconfined and Confined aquifers • Aquiclude and Aquitard • Artesian flow- water flows to the surface from wells without pumping • Potentiometric surface • Natural Springs • Geysers- intermittent surface emission of hot water/steam
How groundwater flows • Groundwater flow potential • Gravity • Pressure from overlying water and rocks • Hydraulic Gradient: Difference in potential / distance • Hydraulic conductivity: Measure of conductivity – size, shape & degree of sorting of its grains – coarse, well-rounded, well-sorted and gravel – high conductivity • Darcy’s principle (19th Century): Rate at which water flows is a difference in potential a hydraulic conductivity
Groundwater flow – contd. • Mesuring the Rate of GW Flow: • Dye injection method • Carbon –14 dating method Groundwater Flow Rate: Average: 0.5 to 1.5 cm/day Fastest: 100 m / day
Locating groundwater and features associated with pumping • Locating Groundwater • Mapping • Water table from well records, lake, river levels, drilling test holes • Features Associated with Pumping • Cone of depression- local depression in water around pumping well • Subsidence- compressed land due to aquifer depletion • Salt water intrusion- due to over pumping along coast line • Greater demand for water- leads to groundwater depletion and introduction of pollutant • Solutions- enhance recharge, water transfer, conservation, desalinization, and use of iceberg
Search for Groundwater • Characteristics of the Water Table: • Depends on Typical depth • Relationship to topography • Response to Climatic Fluctuations AQUIFERS: • Aquifer: Permeable, water-bearing bodies of geological material • Unconfined aquifer: Not overlain by impermeable cap tock • Confined Aquifer: Found in greater depths, between aquiclude (impermeable rock layers) and Aquitard
Groundwater contamination / purification • Natural occurring solutes- Chlorine, Arsenic, Mercury, and Selenium • Manufacturing contaminants- from household products: cans of paint, solvent, cleanser etc. • Natural Groundwater Purification • Filtration- adhere to clay particles • Decomposition- some decompose completely by oxidation • Bacteria action- organic solids consumed by microorganis
Products of Groundwater • Karsts • Water reacts with carbon dioxide to form weak carbonic acid which then attacks limestone • H2O + CO2 => H2CO3 + CaCO3 => Ca++ HCO3– • Caves- natural underground cavities and most common geological product of limestone dissolution • Cave deposits- spelotherms are deposits on cave surfaces in a variety of forms: travertine, Stalactite, Stalagmite, banded draperies or drip curtains • Growth of spelotherm- depends on the solution and porosity of surface material, climate, topography, and vegetation
Karsts Topography Surface expression of the geology of dissolved limestone and work of near surface water • Cave and Karsts landscapes are extremely sensitive- so need to be protected • Landform • Sinkholes-circular surface depression • Disappearing Streams- flow through sinkholes may emerge as spring several kilometers away • Natural Bridge- series of neighboring sinkholes expand and join together