Argument

1. Argument The Basics

2. What does an argument do? • In essence, every argument is a CLAIM. There are four basic kinds of claims: • Claims of fact (____ is true) • Claims about cause and effect • Claims of value (_____ is great/awful) • Claims about solutions and policies

3. Claims and Appeals • Of course, claims need support—this is where the arguing comes into play. Someone who is making a claim must assemble evidence or otherwise persuade the audience to his/her point of view by making appeals.

4. Types of Appeal • The three types of appeals identified by Aristotle are still in use today. They are: • Logos—the appeal to logic. • Pathos—the appeal to emotion • Ethos—the appeal to ethics Most arguments will use a combination of at least two of these types of appeals.

5. Why does it matter? • In your next essay, you will be arguing AGAINST one of the sample essays you’re given. In order to do that effectively, you’ll need to not only IDENTIFY the claims and appeals of the author, but also structure your own argument in opposition.

6. Things to look for… Any time the author states unequivocally that • something is true • “A” causes or does not cause “B” • something is good or bad • or suggests/denounces a solution or policy the author is making a CLAIM. You must identify these in the text and decide which claims are the basis for the argument.

7. Once you’ve identified claims… You need to look for appeals. • Lots of facts and information are usually appeals to LOGIC (Logos). • Sad, heart-wrenching stories are usually appeals to EMOTION (Pathos). • Details intended to convince you that something/someone is good or bad based on moral standards are appeals to ETHICS (Ethos).

8. Check for bias! A really good argument will be balanced. Be suspicious of an argument that is entirely emotional—it’s usually a good sign that the author knows the argument is weak. Be suspicious of an argument that is entirely logical—it may be missing an essential component of humanity. Be suspicious of an argument that is entirely based on personal ethics—like the emotional argument, it tends to focus on the individual to cover up weak logic.

9. Logical Fallacies These are the most common errors made in logic. Look for them in arguments you’re presented with. Try to AVOID them in arguments you make.

10. The Hasty Generalization • This is a conclusion based on biased or insufficient evidence. Example: Your friend says, “Ms. Williams is so mean! She gave me a 65 on my essay!” The conclusion is not necessarily wrong—Ms. Williams may very well be incredibly evil—but to base that solely on a single essay grade would be illogical. Your friend may have ignored the assignment sheet, or Ms. Williams might actually be a cookie-baking adopter of near-blind, geriatric dogs with only three teeth. There just isn’t enough evidence to support the claim of Ms. Williams’ cruelty.

11. Post hoc ergo propter hoc • Latin for “after this, therefore because of this.” This fallacy assumes that because event B happened after event A, that A caused B. Examples: • “Acne ruined my life! The day I got that huge zit, she broke up with me.” • “I wrote that essay in the morning before school and got an “A” on it. I must work better under pressure!”

12. Stereotyping • Assuming that someone’s origin or status is determines character, nature, or worth—logically unsound. Examples: • “That big football player must have more muscle than brains.” • “The people who live in that trailer are probably cooking meth.” • “Great. One more pregnant teenager who’ll end up on welfare for the rest of her life.”

13. Begging the Question • This happens when you make the argument a foregone conclusion. Examples: • “Corrupting, violent rap music should be banned.” Because this assumes in the opening statement that rap is corrupting, it’s begging the question. If you wanted to argue that lyrics glorifying violence and drug use and denigrating women are a corrupting influence on young listeners and therefore should be banned, then that would be logical—but you can’t assume the corruption without proof.

14. Circular Argument • This is a statement that restates rather than proves. Example: Mrs. Gillespie is a fantastic teacher because of her awesome teaching methods! This may certainly be accurate, but the terms “fantastic teacher” and “awesome teaching methods” are almost interchangeable, so the statement doesn’t really prove anything.

15. Either/Or • This fallacy oversimplifies by reducing the alternatives to two choices, creating a false dilemma. Examples: • “Anyone who criticizes the government is un-American!” • “You can’t possibly drive that truck if you care about the environment!”

16. Faulty Comparison or Analogy • Basing an argument on a comparison only works if the two things, ideas, situations, or events are identical. • “Genetically modifying crops is like creating a purebred animal—you look for the best traits and combine them.”

17. Ad hominem • Latin for “to the man.” Basically, attacking someone’s character and name-calling in an effort to avoid the real issue. • “Ms. Teacherlady should not be allowed to work with kindergarteners! I saw her at the store, and she was wearing short shorts and buying alcohol!”

18. Ad populum • Latin for “to the people.” An emotional appeal to positive or negative concepts important to the people, usually in an effort to avoid the real issue. In the USA, ad populum arguments usually invoke the flag, fallen soldiers, and the need to protect our rights and freedoms. These become particularly popular during wars and elections.

19. Slippery slope • These arguments contend that if A happens, the floodgates will open and the whole alphabet will follow. • “If we allow sex education in schools, the teen pregnancy rate will skyrocket!”

20. Red herring • The name of this fallacy refers to the act of dragging a smelly fish across your trail to lead tracking dogs away from your path. Someone who uses a red herring argument leads the listener away from the real issue. • “I wonder if the people who say strip club objectify women understand how much money those dancers make?”

21. Straw man • This replaces the real and complicated argument with an artificial and much easier argument. • “That essay should be an ‘A.’ I spent six hours on it and it’s ten pages long!” This attempts to shift the argument from the QUALITY of the writing to the EFFORT expended—which, sadly, is not the final measure.

22. So… • Read the essays. • Identify the claims. • Determine the appeals. • Check for bias. • Check for fallacies. You can NOT attempt this essay without carefully reading and thoroughly analyzing your source essay. The preparation to argue is essential.