Political Development and Governance

1. PIA3395 Development Theories: PhD Reading Seminar Political Development and Governance Khurram Butt Kevin Jeong Aya Okada

2. Main Points • Both theoretical and empirical approaches were observed. • Literatures discuss political development both as independent variable (input) and dependent variable (output). • Political development was not discussed in isolation but as something closely related to other factors in the society. • Psycho-social, Cultural, Managerial, etc.

3. Golden Oldies • Berger, P.L. (1974). Pyramids of Sacrifice. pp.1-113. • Huntington, S.P. (1968). Political Order in Changing Societies. Chapter 1.

4. Berger (1974) Pyramids of Sacrifice • Questions the sacrifice brought about by capitalism and socialism • Myths of social change: growth and revolution • Failure of intellectuals and policy makers • Cautions the Third World for its route to development The Great Pyramids in Cholula Mexico

5. Capitalism – Myth of Growth • Claims: economy based on market mechanism “Trickle-down” effect productivity and efficiency individual freedom • Costs: increasing disparities deprivation and anomie “Man does not live by bread alone.”

6. Socialism – Myth of Revolution • Claims: Egalitarian society through redemptive revolution. • Costs: 1. Constant terror of human liberty due to its innate nature of totalitarian tendency coming. 2. Not free from political inequality problem • Paradoxical Realities of Soviet Revolution and China • What does Berger’s critiques of both systems account for alternative development in the Third World? Combined or Pluralistic Model with less costs and more benefits? Is it possible?

7. Question: What are the similarities and differences between Berger and Huntington? • No Free Lunch and ? • Stability First Versus Individual Freedom First?

8. “Political Order and Political Decay”in Huntington (1968) Political Order in Changing Societies • Asserts that ‘form’ of government does not necessarily guarantee ‘degree’ of government • ‘Government’ is pretty much taken to be synonymous with ‘authoritative control’ • Countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America have “… a shortage of political community and of effective, authoritative, legitimate government.” (Political gap)

9. “Political Order and Political Decay”in Huntington (1968) Political Order in Changing Societies • Violence, instability and general decline in political order in Asia, Africa and Latin America • Product of rapid social change and the rapid mobilization of new groups into politics coupled with the slow development of political institutions • Huntington takes a critical view of ‘mobilization’ and ‘participation’ and instead emphasizes ‘institutionalization’

10. “Political Order and Political Decay”in Huntington (1968) Political Order in Changing Societies • Pillars of political community: scope of support and level of institutionalization • Institutions are stable, valued, recurring patterns of behavior • Institutionalization is the process by which organizations and procedures acquire value and stability • Adaptability, Complexity, Autonomy, Coherence

11. “Political Order and Political Decay”in Huntington (1968) Political Order in Changing Societies • Political modernization • Rationalization of authority • New political functions and structures to perform them • Participation in politics by social groups throughout society • Differentiation between direction of change and the political effects of social, economic and cultural modernization

12. “Political Order and Political Decay”in Huntington (1968) Political Order in Changing Societies • It is not the absence of modernity but the efforts to achieve it which produce political disorder • Critical of ‘economic backwardness leads to violence’ hypothesis; disruptive influence of mod. • Expectation/Satisfaction gap that leads to social frustration and dissatisfaction • Address the gap through socio-economic mobility and adaptable political institutions • Corruption as a ‘consequence’ of modernization

13. Literary Map Evolution of Development Theory (Martinussen) Post-Colonial Political Development (Heady) Colonialism as Psychological Regime (Nandy) Culture as the Key for Development Management (Staudt) Consequences of Ideology (Berger) Political Development and Governance Development Management (Esman) Critique Methodological & Conceptual (Leys) Political Participation and Institutionalization (Two Hungtingtons)

14. Huntington (1996) Clash of Civilizations (Chapter 8 and 9) • Discordance between the West’s efforts to promote universal Western culture to the rest and its declining ability to do so. • Antagonistic relationship among civilizations - not trust and friendship • Intercivilizational conflicts - fault line conflicts (micro) - core state conflicts (macro)

15. “Colonization of the Mind”by Ashis Nandy in Rahnmea & Bawtree (1994) The Post-Development Reader • Waves of colonization • First wave did not have a ‘civilizing’ mission • Second wave was about colonizing minds too • Alteration of cultural priorities; turned ‘modern West’ into a psychological category • The West not only created colonialism, it informs interpretations of it too • There’s a “proper” way to be anti-West that has been prescribed by the West • So even dissent remains controlled & predictable

16. “Colonization of the Mind”by Ashis Nandy in Rahnmea & Bawtree (1994) The Post-Development Reader • Colonialism is a psychological state too • Shared codes: brings to centre subcultures previously marginalized in both cultures • Presumed style of dissent: psychological gains and losses often ignored in analyses • Cultural Co-optation & Consensus • Latent fear of rulers that there will be dissent • Identification of the ruled with the aggressor • Gandhi: dissented outside of the set style

17. Chapters 7, 8 & 9in Heady (1996) Public Administration: A Comparative Perspective • Polarization within the developing world • South Korea vs. India; South Africa vs. Zaire • ‘Transitional’ countries perhaps better title • Development • Dual objectives of nation building and socio-economic progress • Internal and external factors become important depending on the emphasis

18. Chapters 7, 8 & 9in Heady (1996) Public Administration: A Comparative Perspective • Politics of development in the third world • Political alienation • Political uncertainty and extra-legal change • Elitist leadership • Three trends • Move away from competitive party systems • Military intervention & control of govt. machinery • Contemporary tendency toward redemocratization

19. Chapters 7, 8 & 9in Heady (1996) Public Administration: A Comparative Perspective • Common Administrative patterns • Imitative rather than indigenous • Deficient in skilled development manpower • Bureaucracy busy with non-program goals • Gap between what ought to be and what actually is masked • Differences in administration emanating from different regime types

20. Chapters 7, 8 & 9in Heady (1996) Public Administration: A Comparative Perspective • Political regime variations in developing countries

21. Chapter 3: Huntington & End of Modernization Theoryin Leys (1969) Politics and Change in Developing Countries • Puts forth key points of Huntington’s argument • Rejection of the concept of ‘political development’ • Discusses ‘political change’ • Strong current of dislike for the aspiration of masses and an admiration for an elite leadership • ‘As modernization occurs, more and more people become politically active; unless political institutions are capable of handling it, it will become destabilizing and/or lead to corruption’

22. Chapter 3: Huntington & End of Modernization Theoryin Leys (1969) Politics and Change in Developing Countries • Critique: As social science • Formidable volume of data bedazzles but does not illuminate • Pseudo-quantification and circular argumentation • No testing of hypotheses; illustration only • Critique: As ideology • Relation between Huntington and Marxism influenced by his work with USAID • Not anti-communist; admiration for authoritarian regimes

23. Esman (1991) Management Dimension of Development (Chapter 1 and Chapter 2) • Pragmatic consensus of development models - state/market/community • Increasing importance of the role of public development managers - intermediate band between macro economic management and microlevel entities - dealing with societal differentiation and bureaucratic pluralism

24. Staudt (1991) Managing Development(Chapter 3) • Culture as the key for dev. management 1) national culture 2) ethnic/class culture 3) gender culture 4) organizational culture 5) disciplinary culture

25. John Martinussen: Society, State & Market: A Guide To Competing Theories Of Development

26. Thoughts of Masters • The Law of Dialectic Historical Change • Teleological/Religiously redemptive Assumption • More Political Economy Karl Marx Sharing Evolutionary Assumptions • Transit from Mechanical to Organic Society • Priority of Oder Maintenance • More Social/sociological Emile Durkheim Max Weber • Class/Power Struggle • Theory of Bureaucracy • Somewhat Political

27. Classical Political Modernization Theory Major Theorists • Gabriel Almond: Etablishing categories of process • Lucien Pye: Cultural Dimension of Political Modernization • David Easton: System Theory-A feedback system based on Input/output Chain Key Points • Political Development Approach (Instead of Modernisation theory) • But very similar with economic & sociological Modernization theory. • Same Dualism between tradition and modern • Optimistic prospects of political modernization in the 3rd world due to the Western Critiques • Rare to find out real cases • Western bias of Market oriented social adjustment mechanism • Ignorance of considerable differences among the underdeveloped countries. • Only answer is to westernize entire society (political/education/legal/organization)

28. Alternatives

29. A. Dialectical Modernization Theory Major Theorists • Joseph Gusfield: Revitalization of tradition. • Lloyd I.Rudolph & Susanne H. Rudolph: The Politicization of the India Caste System. • Sandbrook & Hyden:Tradition of African Societies. Key Points • Retaining the dualism but different emphasis and meaning. • Some tradition even promotes political development through smooth transition. • Traditional societies may dynamic, heterogeneous and vigorous. • Emphasis more on dialectic relations between tradition and modern to diverse • passages of social changes.

30. B. Political Order and State-Building Strategies Major Theorists • Samuel Huntington: Forerunner of later ‘Reaching-down state building theories. • Christopher Clapham: Against top-down approach/more civil society oriented. Key Points • Strong focus on political institutionalization and government capacity for • establishing order and consolidating the state-nations. • Simple transplantation from Western institution to developing states is not feasible. • Unmatched transformation process between economy and politics lead to • instability. • So diverse developing countries that different strategies should be applied. • The people as a partner should be accepted.

31. C. Dependency Theories Major Theorists • Samir Amin: Imperialism & Unequal Development / Problems of Monopoly • Andre Gunder Frank: Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America. Key Points • The primary concern on the reason of economic underdevelopment in peripheral • societies. • Consequently, political subordination to external economic forces and its • embodiment. • Refutation of modernization breakthrough against dependency on the metropoles • (Frank) and centre formations (Amin) • Arguing delinking through socialism. Critiques • Similar Assumptions with modernization theory. • Economic reductionism while neglecting dynamic politico-historical and social processes in diverse peripheral societies • Exaggeration of autonomy of backward countries

32. D. Consequences of Modernization Major Theorists • David Apter: Rethinking Development Key Points • Critiques against both modernization theory as too naïve/optimistic view of balanced transition and dependency theory as too optimistic of socialism effects. • Providing a new conceptual framework with concepts of development, innovation, marginalization and violence by shifting focus from state to the impact of modernization processes in a civil society context. • Arguing too widespread organized violence and the disposition to violence resulted from the tension between innovation and marginalization since innovation as a essence of industrial grown marginalize losing people who tend to be violent protestors to the change establishing a symbolic capital as a legitimate base against innovation led changes. •  David Apter argues about the social limits of growth and the rethinking of development.

33. E. Historical Trajectories as a Radical Approach Major Theorists • Fernand Braudel: longue duree (Long Duration) • Perry Anderson: Historical Trajectory • Jean-Francois Bayart: 3 ways of analyzing modern states. Key Points • Critiques against previous development theories neglecting their diverse historical • (irreducible) trajectories. • Emphasis on irreducible long term historical trajectories. • serious disruptions occurred by Western colonization over Africa and Asia. • 3 ways of analyzing modern states for identifying commonalities and differences: • civilization, historicity and Cultural Construction Critiques • Representative research of current trends (cf. Manor,1991; Kaviraj, 1991) with a good trial to correct the mainstream errors. • Vagueness of concepts that hinder to make a general theory. • Limited validity of the generalizability of a specific historical interpretation of one society to other society.

34. F. Political Regimes: Democracy vs Non-Democracy Explanatory Variables of Non-Democratic Regimes • The Colonial Legacy: Hamza Alavi • The military and civil bureaucracies • National and ethnic conflicts • Rural-urban contradiction: Most Powers in Urban (Michael Lipton) • International Conflicts: cold war era.(Viotti&Kauppi;Holm&Sorensen) • Non-democratic institutions and traditions: Africa- Richard Sandbgrook; Janson&Rosberg • Invented traditions.: Eric Hobsbawm and Rerence Ranger • Islamic Conceptions of the State: Rosenthal; Ferdinand & Mozaffari • Personal rule and patron-client relationships through informal links: Robert Jackson and Carl Rosberg; Richard Sandbrook; Goran Hyden

35. F. Political Regimes: Democracy vs Non-Democracy Prospects for Democracy • Causes of Democratization tendency in the developing worlds • Incapacity of autocratic regimes over the rising demands of people and crisis. • De-legitimization of autocratic regimes: Eastern Europe (Sorenson,1983) • Historical Change: the end of cold war era • Education • Urbanization • Democracy and governability (Not always associated with each other) • The study of India democratic regime’s struggles by Atul Kohli (1991) • Democracy and Human Rights (Not Always associated with each other • India Cases versus Scandinavian states. Two Results from the Deviations • limited protection capacity for citizen rights that are determined by other factors • Severe distortions against minority and poor people.

36. G. Social Class Theories • Key Points: Forms of state and regime to a large extent are determined by the interests of the social forces and their relative power positions. • Key influential thought lineage: Marxism in combination with Weberian tradition • Key Theorists: Nicos Poulantzas, 1973,78; Erik Olin Wright, 1978,85

37. G. Social Class Theories : Class and State Theories Key Points • Focusing more on internal dynamics than external factors and influences. • Viewing the form of regime and its entity as product of class struggles and conflicts. • Social Class and its relative position as primary determinants since they seek to optimize or maximize their interest and influence through state apparatuses. Major Theories • Symbiosis between international capital and the national bourgeoisies as the mian determinant of regime from in Africa (Langdon and Godfrey, 1976). • The petty bourgeoisie as the ruling or the most influence class for the form of nature (Meillassoux,1970;Shivji,1976; Saul, 1974,79) • Limited/sporadic influence of social classes (Hyden, 1983) • More complex pictures from interactions between social structures and regimes in Latin America, Asia and the Middle East (Martinussen, 1980; Olsen, 1994)

38. H. State Centered Development Key Points • State extension far reaching down/out to citizens via bureaucracy as an engine of growth/development and as a central planning/allocation mechanism. • Rare possibility to escape out of underdeveloped with no state intervention. • State as a rational actor to the benefit of society as a whole under the name of common good. Critiques from Neo-Classical Economy • State should be minimized due to poor performance/misallocation caused by self-seeking behavior/corruption. • Unwanted side effect like ineffective/inefficient cost-benefits. • Price distorting mechanism should be eliminated.

39. I. Market Friendly Approaches Key Points • First formulations of the neo-classical paradigm: Autonomous market mechanism. • Criticism of Keyne’s conception of state intervention. • Primary Concepts: Free competition and Self-Regulating Market mechanism • Major international institutions: IMF, The World Bank and decision makers in OECD especially such as Reagan, Thatcher and Kohl. Major Theorists • Little, Scitovsky and Scott: CriticizingSelf-seeking behavior of state employees • Syendsen: Change of Guard • Toye; Lal; Bela BAlassa; Bhagwati, and Little: Calling Counter Revolution • Deepak Lal: Limits of Govt. Intervention • Jagdish Bhagwati and Desai: Direct Unproductive Profit Seeking [DUP]-Behavior Critiques • Problems from initiatives of financial institutions. • Focus shift from the right policies to the right prices • Too excessive criticism of state-managed development model • The irony of the World Bank

40. J. Revisionist Approaches • Jean-Phillppe Platteau : Shaky market mechanism functioning only under two premises: Impersonal Relationships and Generalized Morality in Honesty. • Jerome Davis : Preconditions of effectively functioning market finance transferability, standardization of contracts, the existence of risk spreading organization • Neo-structural economists • 1) Salazar-Xirinach: Adding the social distribution of incomes and growth and • decision making process. • 2) Toye; Killick; Streeten: Take attention to available options to decision • makers in developing countries. Overall Critiques • Overlapped enterprise between private and public in reality beyond the dichotomy. • Market cannot function without regulation that state can afford.

41. Different Views of East Asian Miracles • Neo-classical Views: Chen; Wolf - Special attention to Well functioning active government, reliable legal framework, political incentives for export-oriented development and active govt. led investment in education and health • Revisionist Views: Alice Amsden, 1989; Robert Wade, 1990 - In cases of Taiwan and South Korea- the role of ‘governed market’ • Functional Approach: The World Bank Economists, 1993 based on studies of Far Eastern Economies. - Functional mechanisms of state-managed development including human resource investment. Other Opinions • More People Friendly Approach: Paul Streeten • Political Feasibility of Economic Reforms: Anne O. Kreuger; Haggard and Kaufman -Without understanding and considering prevailing political power structure no Successful market oriented reforms are feasible.

42. References • Berger, P.L. (1974). Pyramids of Sacrifice: Political Ethics and Social Change. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books. pp.1-113. • Esman, M. (1991). Management Dimensions of Development: Perspectives and Strategies. Harford: Kumarian Press. Chapters 1-2. • Heady, F. (1991). Public Administration: A Comparative Perspective. New York: Marcel Dekker. Chapters 7-9. • Hungtington, S.P. (1996). The Clash of Civilizations and the Making of World Order. New York: Simon and Shuster. Chapters 8-9. • Huntington, S.P. (1968). Political Order in Changing Societies. New Haven: Yale University Press. Chapter 1. • Leys , C. (1996). The Rise and Fall of Development Theory. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Chapters 3. • Martinussen, J. (1997). Society, State and Market: A Guide to Competing Theories of Development. London: Zed Press. Chapters 8 and 9. • Nandy, A. Colonization of the Mind. In Rahnema and Bawtree • Staudt, K. (1991). Managing Development: State, Society and International Contexts. Newbury Park: Sage. Chapters 12-14 and 18.