Learning

1. Learning Classical and Operant Conditioning, Cognitive-Social Learning, Neuroscience and Evolution

2. Key Terms • Learning—A relatively permanent change in behavior or mental process as a result of practice or experience • Conditioning—Learning associations between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses.

3. Classical Conditioning • Classical Conditioning—Learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes paired (associated) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR) (also known as respondent or Pavlovian conditioning).

4. Unconditioned Stimulus-Response • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)—Stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR) without previous conditioning. • Unconditioned Response (UCR)—Unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that occurs without previous conditioning. • Neutral Stimulus (NS)—A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest.

5. Conditioned Stimulus-Response • Conditioned Stimulus (CS)—Previously neutral stimulus that, through repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), now causes a conditioned response (CR). • Conditioned Response (CR)—Learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus (CS) that occurs because of previous repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

6. Ivan Pavlov • Although his name is most often associated with psychology and classical conditioning, he won a Nobel Prize as a physiologist for his study of the role of saliva in digestion. • Pavlov’s discovery and pursuit of classical conditioning came as he began to think critically about an observation made which was really an interference with his primary research.

7. John B. Watson • In what would now be considered an unethical experiment, Watson discovered that emotional responses can also be conditioned through classical means. • Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)—A classically conditioned emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus. • Watson’s experiment led to understanding of phobias. He also founded the school of psychology known as Behaviorism.

8. Principles of Classical Conditioning • Generalization and Discrimination • Stimulus Generalization—Learned response not only to the original stimulus but also to other similar stimuli • Stimulus Discrimination—Learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli

9. Principles of Classical Conditioning • Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery • Extinction—Gradual weakening, or suppression of a previously conditioned response (CR). • Spontaneous Recovery—Reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR). • Higher-Order Conditioning—A neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) through repeated pairings with a previously conditioned stimulus (CS).

10. Applications of Classical Conditioning • Prejudice—the Clark Study in the 1930’s and Powell-Hopson & Hopson in the 1980’s illustrate how prejudice can be classically conditioned through repeated pairings of characteristics or traits with one group of people.

11. Applications of Classical Conditioning • Phobias—through the application of Watson’s experiment and understanding of conditioned emotional responses (CER), we can understand irrational fears and how to treat them. • Medical Treatments—classical conditioning can be used to treat alcohol-dependent patients by forming negative associations or to increase success of treatment by forming positive associations

12. Applications of Classical Conditioning • Advertising—John B. Watson proved that, if you lose your job as a psychologist for unethical behavior, you can always be welcomed into the field of advertising  • Advertising pairs neutral stimuli (the product) with positive conditioned stimuli (models, sex, fun) • The reverse can also be true when creating negative associations such as in political advertising

13. Operant Conditioning • Learning in which voluntary responses are controlled by their consequences (also known as instrumental or Skinnerian conditioning) • The organism performs a behavior that produces an effect on the environment—known as reinforcements • Reinforcement strengthens a response and makes it more likely to occur

14. Operant Conditioning • In operant conditioning the organism’s response is active and voluntary vs. classical conditioning where the response is passive and involuntary. • Edward Thorndike— • The Law of Effect—the probability of an action being repeated is strengthened when followed by a pleasant or satisfying consequence

15. B. F. Skinner • Skinner emphasized external, observable behavior. We can only know if something is a reinforcement or punishment after the fact. • He developed the Skinner Box in which an animal was trained to push a lever to receive a food pellet. • From this basic apparatus, Skinner was able to demonstrate a number of operant conditioning principles.

16. Principles of Operant Conditioning • Reinforcement—Primary and Secondary • Primary reinforcers—stimuli that increase the probability of a response because they satisfy a biological need, such as food, water, and sex. • Secondary reinforcers—stimuli that increase the probability of a response because of their learned value, such as money and material possessions

17. Principles of Operant Conditioning • Reinforcement—positive and negative • Positive reinforcement—adding (or presenting) a stimulus, which strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur • Negative reinforcement—taking away (or removing) a stimulus, which strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur • Premack principle—using a naturally occurring high-frequency response will reinforce and increase low-frequency responses.

18. Principles of Operant Conditioning • Schedules of Reinforcement • Continuous reinforcement—Every correct response is reinforced • Partial (Intermittent) reinforcement—some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced

19. Partial Schedules of Reinforcement • Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule—Reinforcement occurs after a fixed (predetermined) number of responses. • Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule—Reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the ratio (number or amount) varies • Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule—Reinforcement occurs after a fixed (predetermined) time has elapsed • Variable Interval (VI) Schedule—Reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the interval (time) varies

20. Principles of Operant Conditioning • Shaping—Reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired response • Punishment— • Positive punishment—adding (or presenting) a stimulus, which weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur • Negative punishment—taking away (or removing) a stimulus, which weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur

21. Side Effects of Punishment • Increased aggression • Passive aggression • Avoidance behavior • Modeling • Temporary suppression • Learned helplessness

22. Applications of Operant Conditioning • Prejudice—prejudice and discrimination can be learned through positive reinforcement (positive attention, acceptance by others, increase of self-esteem)—stimulus generalization may also play a part as people may have had a punishing experience with a member of a group.

23. Applications of Operant Conditioning • Biofeedback—a bodily function (such as blood pressure, or heart rate) is recorded and the information is fed back to an organism to increase voluntary control over the bodily function • Positive reinforcement (feedback is added as a way to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated) • Secondary reinforcer (the value we place on health) • Shaping (the information through data helps the organism approximate the desired outcome)

24. Applications of Operant Conditioning • Superstition • Behaviors get accidentally reinforced such that the organism associates the reinforcement with the behavior. • Can also become conditioned through partial schedules of reinforcement.

25. Cognitive-Social Learning • Cognitive-Social Theory emphasizes the roles of thinking and social learning in behavior. • Insight—sudden understanding of a problem that implies the solution. • Cognitive Map—a mental image of a three-dimensional space that an organism has navigated.

26. Cognitive-Social Learning • Latent Learning—hidden learning that exists without behavioral signs. • Observational Learning—Learning new behavior or information by watching others (also known as social learning or modeling)

27. Neuroscience and Evolution • Changes in biochemistry • The Brain—learning and memory create new synaptic connections and changes in brain structures

28. Evolution • Biological Preparedness—Built-in (innate) readiness to form associations between certain stimuli and responses • Instinctive Drift—Conditioned responses shift (or drift) back toward innate response patterns