On the Structure of Discourse Grammar Bernd Heine November 2011

1. On the Structure of Discourse Grammar Bernd Heine November 2011 bernd.heine@uni-keln.de

2. Two distinct cognitive domains a Peter is really a poet. Sentence grammar (SG) b Peter is a poet, really. Thetical Grammar (TG) Really, Peter is a poet.

3. a He put the chair between you and me. • b He failed the exam, between you and me. • c ?Between you and me he put the chair. • d Between you and me, he failed the exam. • (Quirk et al. 1985: 1626)

4. a He put the chair between you and me. Adverbial phrase • b He failed the exam, between you and me. Thetical The status of the information unit between you and me: 1 The unit in (b), but not that in (a), is separated by a comma from the rest of the utterance. This difference has a correlate in the spoken use, where the unit in (b), but not in (a), is likely to be set off by a pause. 2 There is a difference in positional mobility: The unit in (b) is positionally more mobile than that in (a). 3 The unit is an argument of the verb in (a), while in (b) it is syntactically independent from the rest of the utterance. 4 There is also a difference in meaning and pragmatics: The unit determines and is part of the utterance meaning in (a). In (b), by contrast, the meaning is independent of the preceding meaning but rather concerns the discourse situation of social interaction. 5 (a) can be said to show the literal, locative meaning of between whereas (b) is suggestive of a derived, non-locative meaning.

5. a I think (that) Liwent home. Sentence Grammar bLi I think went home. Thetical cLiwent I think home. dLiwent home I think.

6. Thetical: Terminology parenthetical syntactic non-clausal unit (Biber et al. 1999: 1099) extra-clausal constituent (Dik 1997) insert (Biber et al. 1999) interpolationdisjunct (Quirk et al. 1985; Espinal 1991) supplement (Huddleston and Pullum 2002: 1358)

7. Definitions of theticals "A parenthetical (P) is an expression of which it can be argued that, while in some sense ‘hosted’ by another expression (H), P makes no contribution to the structure of H." (Burton-Roberts 2005: 180) A thetical is “an interpolated structure…a digressive structure...which is inserted in the middle of another structure, and which is unintegrated in the sense that it could be omitted without affecting the rest of that structure or its meaning” (Biber et al. 1999: 1067).

8. Defining a thetical a It is syntactically independent from its environment. b It forms a separate prosodic unit. c It has non-restrictive meaning. e It tends to bepositionally highly mobile. f It is built on principles of Sentence Grammar but may be elliptic.

9. English really From adverb to thetical aPeter is really a poet. (Sentence Grammar: prosodically integrated, positionally fixed, has a syntactic function: adverb) b Peter is a poet, really. (Thetical Grammar: prosodically set off, positionally free, serves speaker-hearer interaction: "discourse marker")

10. English what else (Lenk 1992: 189-202; Brinton 2008: 212) a The price reflects what else is available in the pub. (What's brewing, BNC, 1991) (Sentence Grammar: prosodically integrated, positionally fixed: argument (object of clause) b Of course, on Monday nights they settle down to watch - what else - "Murphy Brown" (Saturday Evening Post, 1992). (Thetical Grammar: prosodically set off, positionally fairly free, not an argument: "general elicitation" discourse marker)

11. Theticals can have a complex internal structure which may include semantic recursion: Our chairman is, everybody is aware of it, I believe, but don't quote me, you know the press, a liar. It's been a mixture of extreme pleasure I've had hundreds of letters from all sorts of people who have enjoyed the book and considerable irritation because of being constantly interviewed. (ICE-GB; Dehé and Kavalova2007b: 3)

12. Theticals serve a wide range of functions:aMaryis coming over to visit.bMary -- I just learned from her daughter -- is coming over to visit.c Mary -- don't forget -- is coming over to visit.d Mary -- is she persistent! -- is coming over to visit.e Mary -- did you know? -- is coming over to visit. b Conceptual information c Social interaction d Speaker's attitudes e Social interaction b Declarations c Commands (imperatives) d Exclamations e Questions

13. Variables determining the environment of discourse A Text organization The warning -- that prices should be lowered -- was ignored. B Source of information The issue is, as you say, extremely delicate. (Blakemore 2006: 1672) C Attitudes of the speaker It is also, perversely enough, an unintended validation of Chomsky's disruptive agenda.(T. Givón, Funknet circular, 12-03-2010) D Speaker-hearer interaction He is a real bastard -- if you don't mind the expression. E Situation of discourse Confidentially, John left the family business. (Espinal 1991: 755) F World knowledge But we were also deeply interested in structure -- how could a linguist not be? -- provided it were studied and explained in its relevant broad connectivity. (T. Givón, Funknet circular, 12-03-2010)

14. There are a number of typological surveys of English theticals (see especially Dehé and Kavalova2007b: 1-4; Kaltenböck 2007: 27-31; Brinton 2008: 9-10). An additional typology: Instantaneous theticals They can be formed freely any time and anywhere. Being largely free combinations, both with reference to their content and their morphosyntactic form, they exhibit few constraints in their structure and meaning. Constructional theticals They are recurrent patterns or constructions of conceptual theticals having a more or less formulaic form and function.

15. Instantaneous theticals (repeated) A Text organization The warning -- that prices should be lowered -- was ignored. B Source of information The issue is, as you say, extremely delicate. (Blakemore 2006: 1672) C Attitudes of the speaker It is also, perversely enough, an unintended validation of Chomsky's disruptive agenda.(T. Givón, Funknet circular, 12-03-2010) D Speaker-hearer interaction He is a real bastard -- if you don't mind the expression. E Situation of discourse Confidentially, John left the family business. (Espinal 1991: 755) F World knowledge But we were also deeply interested in structure -- how could a linguist not be? -- provided it were studied and explained in its relevant broad connectivity. (T. Givón, Funknet circular, 12-03-2010)

16. Some constructional theticals of English

17. Some references Burton-Roberts, Noel 2005. Parentheticals. Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. 2nd edition, volume 9. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Pp. 179-82. Dehé, Nicole and YordankaKavalova 2007. Parentheticals. (Linguistics Today, 106.) Amsterdam, Philadelphia: Benjamins. Brinton, Laurel J. 2008. The Comment Clause in English: Syntactic Origins and Pragmatic Development. (Studies in English Language.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kaltenböck, Gunther, Bernd Heine, and Tania Kuteva 2011. On Thetical Grammar. Studies in Language in print.

18. Discourse Grammar Sentence GrammarThetical Grammar ... Conceptual Formulae Vocatives Imperatives Interjections ... theticals of social exchange

19. Sentence Grammar units vs. theticals: Main distinguishing properties A Theticals are positionally distinctly more mobile. B Theticals cannot be split. C Theticals tend to be elliptic.

20. A Theticals are positionally distinctly more mobile. aLiwent to Wuxan on Sunday. bIt's true, Li went to Wuxanon Sunday. cLi, it's true, went to Wuxanon Sunday. d Li went, it's true, to Wuxanon Sunday. eLi went to Wuxan, it's true, on Sunday. f Li went to Wuxanon Sunday, it's true. g It's true. Each category of theticals has its own word order syntax.

21. B Theticals cannot be split. aMary -- I just learned from her daughter -- is coming over to visit.b *Mary -- I just learned -- is coming over to visit -- from her daughter.c *I just learned -- Mary is coming over to visit -- from her daughter.

22. C Theticals tend to be elliptic.1aI just learned from her daughter that Mary is coming over to visit.1bMary -- I just learned from her daughter -- is coming over to visit.2a And she said that everything was mouldy. 2b "Everything," she said, "is mouldy." (Biber et al. 1999: 198)

23. Anchored vs. floating theticals Kavalova, Yordanka 2007. And-parenthetical clauses. In Dehé, Nicole and YordankaKavalova2007a (eds.). Parentheticals. (Linguistics Today, 106.) Amsterdam, Philadelphia: Benjamins. Pp. 145-72.

24. Anchored theticals a John wrote a book in Paris, of all places. b *In Paris, John wrote, of all places, a book. (Emonds 1973: 338) A catalog of constructional anchored theticals: -- Appositions -- Non-restrictive relative clauses -- One type of theticaland-clauses (Kavalova 2007: 149-50) -- Right dislocation -- Tag questions .

25. Floating theticals a You know Bush was not liked by many. b Bush You knowwas not liked by many. cBush was You knownot liked by many. d Bush was not You know liked by many. e Bush wasnot liked You knowby many. f Bush wasnot liked by many You know. A catalog of constructional theticals: -- Truth conditionals -- Comment clauses -- Reporting clauses

26. Where do theticals come from? They are invariably derived from Sentence Grammar units (words, phrases, clauses, sentences, or parts thereof) by means of a mechanism we propose to call cooptation.

27. Cooptation a A unit of Sentence Grammar, such as an adverb or a clause, is transferred for use as a thetical. b In accordance with its new status, the unit corresponds to our definition of theticals: It is no longer part of "grammar proper", it is now an autonomous information unit set off from the clause syntactically and prosodically. c No longer serving sentence grammatical concerns, it is now a device of Discourse Grammar, its main function being that of planning the text and relating the text to the environment characterizing the situation of discourse.

28. Discourse Grammar Sentence Grammar Thetical Grammar Thetical (> grammaticalization) Cooptation Sentence Grammar unit (> grammaticalization)

29. a Peter is really a poet. Sentence adverb Cooptation ofreally> b Peter is a poet, really. Thetical Really, Peter is a poet.

30. Competing domains: Forms of interaction between Sentence Grammar and TheticalGrammar: A Ellipsis B Crossreference C Amalgam

31. Competing domains: Interaction A "Yes," thought Fleury, "she's going at it hammer and tongs for his benefit." (Fiction, Biber et al. 1999: 196) (Ellipsis) B And then you had a theologian talking about the Big Bang <,> whichI thought was brilliant. (ICE-GB; Dehé and Kavalova 2007: 3) (Crossreference) C John is going to I think it's Chicago on Saturday. (Lakoff 1974, (13a)) (Amalgam)

32. Lateralization of the brain

33. The human brain Left hemisphere Right hemisphere Sentence GrammarThetical Grammar

34. Possible correlates between brain lateralization and Discourse Grammar • Some references • Cutica, I., M. Bucciarelli, and B. G. Bara 2006. Neuropragmatics: Extralinguistic • pragmatic ability is better preserved in left-hemisphere-damaged patients • than in right-hemisphere-damaged patients. Brain and Language 98, 1: • 12-25. • Devinsky, Orrin 2000. Right cerebral hemisphere dominance for a sense of • corporeal and emotional self. Epilepsy and Behavior 1, 1: 60-73. • Mitchell, Rachel L. C. and Tim J. Crow 2005. Right hemisphere language • functions and schizophrenia: The forgotten hemisphere? Brain 128: • 963-78. • Rota, Giuseppinaforthc. Direct brain feedback and language learning from the • gifted. InDogil, Gzegorz and Maria Reitererforthc. Language Talent • and Brain Activity. Berlin: Mouton. Pp. 337-50. • Schiffer, F. 1998. Of Two Minds. New York: The Free Press • Schiffer, F., E. Zaidel, J. Bogen, and S. Chasan-Taber 1998. Different • psychological status in the two hemispheres of two split-brain patients. • Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioral Neurology 11: 151-6. • Tesink, C. M. J. Y., J. K. Buitelaar, K. M. Petersson, R. J. van derGaag, C. C. • Kan, I. Tendolkar, and P. Hagoort 2009. Neural correlates of pragmatic • language comprehension in autism spectrum disorders. Brain 132: • 941-52.

35. Possible correlates between brain lateralization and Discourse Grammar

36. Conclusions 1 Linguistic discourse contains at least two competing domains, that of Sentence Grammar and of Thetical Grammar. 2 That theticals form a distinct domain that is separately stored and retrieved in the brain is suggested by the following: a They cannot be split. b They are separated from the rest of an utterance both syntactically and prosodically. c They can form utterances of their own. 3 These two domains – even though distinct – nevertheless interact in a number of ways.

37. General questions a What motivates speakers to draw on one domain as against the other? bIs it possible to predict when and where speakers will draw on one domain as against the other?

38. Problems a The observations made are entirely Euro-centric, being based largely on the analysis of three Germanic languages. b They are part of on-going research, so they are not the last word on this issue. c Many phenomena are still ill-understood and will be the subject of further work: - The interaction of the two domains of grammar - The exact nature of discourse organization - The internal syntax of theticals

39. With thanks to the Korean Ministry of Education, Science and Technology for generously having sponsored the research leading to this paper within its World Class University program (Grant Nr. R33-10011).