Chemical Sensors

1. Chemical Sensors These slides can be downloaded from http://www.nuigalway.ie/chem/Donal/Teaching.htm Contact details Dónal Leech Room C205, Physical Chemistry Laboratory Phone: 493563 (or ext 3563 in NUIG) E-mail: Donal.Leech@nuigalway.ie

2. Analytical Chemistry Definition: A scientific discipline that develops and applies methods, instruments and strategies to obtain information on the composition and nature of matter in space and time. Importance to Society:qualitative (what’s there?) and quantitative (how much is there) analysis of clinical samples (blood, tissue and urine), industrial samples (steel, mining ores, plastics), pharmacological samples (drugs and medicines), food samples (agriculture) and environmental samples (quality of air, water, soil and biological materials)

3. Chemical Sensors Can we selectively detect chemicals? (what use is this?) Can we detect classes of chemicals? (An electronic tongue or nose!) Sensors (detectors/transducers) covers a wide category of devices used to monitor, measure, test, analyse data as generated due to changes in a measured norm (usually concentration for chemical sensors).

4. Gas Sensors • Applications: • Controlled combustion (automobile, industrial furnaces) • Toxic and inflammable gas detection (leakages) • Electronic noses for air-quality monitoring, food quality • and medical diagnosis • Sensing Principles • Electrochemical (solid electrolyte and amperometric) • Catalytic combustion (hot-wire) • Semiconductor (conduction)

5. Gas Sensor Roadmap • Prepared to predict directions required to improve upon gas-sensing technology under an EU-funded project in 2006 • http://mnt.globalwatchonline.com/epicentric_portal/site/MNT/GSsfgDocuments/

6. Solid electrolyte gas sensors Today's automobiles monitor combustion efficiency using a galvanic oxygen sensor in the exhaust manifold. This sensormeasures the oxygen pressure of the exhaust gas. The potential between two electrodes depends solely on the ratio of the partial pressures of oxygenat each electrode, separated by an oxygen ion conductor; zirconia . The chemical reactions (electron transfer) at eachelectrode are the same but in reverse of one another; at one electrode thereduced form of the chemical particle is being oxidised (releasing electrons) andat the other electrode the oxidised form is being reduced (accepting electrons).The voltage output of the sensor is sent in a feedback loop to controlthe air/fuel mixture for optimised combustion.

7. ZrO2 oxygen sensor Bosch (Germany) and NTK (Japan) are largest manufacturers of so-called lambda sensors.

8. TWC Cars are equipped with a three-way catalytic converter, so-called as it helps decrease carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon and NOx emissions using both reduction and oxidation catalysts (such as platinum, rhodium and/or palladium).    In order to reduce emissions, modern car engines carefully control the amount of fuel they burn. They try to keep the air-to-fuel ratio very close to the stoichiometric point, which is the calculated ideal ratio of air to fuel, using a lambda sensor feedback. Theoretically, at this ratio, all of the fuel will be burned using all of the oxygen in the air. For petrol engines it is about 14.7:1. As engine and driving conditions change, this ratio changes as well. Sometimes it will run richer or leaner than the ideal 14.7:1.

9. Automotive combustion control

10. ZrO2 sensor operating principle Electrochemical cell line notation PO2(ref), Pt|Y2O3-ZrO2 |Pt, PO2(test) Half-cell reactions 4e- + O2(test) 2O22- 2O22-  4e- + O2(ref) NERNST Equation

11. Mechanism In order for the zirconium oxide sensor to function, the oxides must be mobile. To make the oxides more mobile and the sensor more stable, the zirconium oxide is doped with yttrium oxide and heated above 450ºC. Doped Zirconia Electrolyte

12. Why dope? The yttria dopant introduces a defect into the zirconia crystal that leaves voids. In the solid zirconia, some Zr4+ ions are replaced by Y3+ ions so that oxygen vacancies are created which allow the oxide anion, O2-, to move in the solid, giving a solid electrolyte.

13. Signal Output

14. Other solid electrolyte sensors Same principle applies to producing cells sensitive to hydrogen gas and/or humidity (using perovskite oxides based on SrCeO3 as proton conductors). Research is underway to identify other oxides for detection of hydrocarbons, CO2, CO, NOX and SOX

15. Amperometric Sensors Amperometric Oxygen Sensors Similar to the solid electrolyte sensors. An oxygen cell can simply be considered as an enclosure which holds a flat PTFE tape coated with an active catalyst (Pt), the cathode, and a metal anode. This enclosureis airtight apart from a small capillary at the top of the cell which allows oxygen access to the working electrode. The two electrodes are connected, via current collectors, to the pins which protrude externally and allow the sensor to be electronicallyconnected to an instrument.

16. Amperometric cell principles The rate at which oxygen can enter the cell is controlled by the size of the capillary hole at the top of the sensor. The diffusion-limited current response is directly proportional to O2 pressure.

17. Universal Exhaust Gas Oxygen (UEGO) Sensor This is the combination of an amperometric sensor and a potentiometric sensor for use with “lean-burn” engines. The potentiometric, lambda, sensor determines whether the burn is lean or rich, while the amperometric sensor determines the precise oxygen pressure.

18. Toxic Gas Sensors The reactions that take place at the electrodes in a carbonmonoxide sensor are: Sensing: CO + H2O  CO2 + 2H+ + 2e– Counter: ½O2 + 2H+ + 2e- H2O Overall reaction is: CO + ½O2 CO2 Similar reactions take place for all other toxic gases that are capable of being electrochemically oxidised or reduced (H2S,Cl2).

19. Interferences An auxiliary electrode can assist in overcoming cross interference from other gases. Typically carbon monoxide sensorsshow a significant response to hydrogen which can make the accurate measurement of CO difficult when hydrogen is present. However, using a sensor with an auxiliary electrode all of the CO and some of the H2 reacts on the sensing electrode leavingonly H2 to react with the auxiliary electrode. Once the ratio of the responses on each electrode in known, a H2 –compensatedsignal can be obtained by subtracting the auxiliary signal from the sensing electrode signal with an analogue circuit or using amicroprocessor with appropriate software.

20. Applications Oxygen: Typical applicationsinclude the measurement of oxygen deficiency inconfined spaces such as tunnels, mines or chemical plant or for the analysis of combustiongases in flues and chimney stacks. Amperometric oxygen sensors are also used in patient monitoring. CO: Sensors are available for awide range of applications, including residentialsafety, fire detection (smouldering fires), and industrial safetydevices. Toxic gases: Personal and industrial safety. Flue gas emission monitoring.

21. Catalytic combustion sensors A pellistor element is simply a platinum wire coil, coated with a catalytic slurry of an inert base material(e.g. alumina) and a metal catalyst which accelerates the oxidation reaction. This type of elementis known as the "sensitive" element. There are a number of catalyst materials available andthe precise type and mix is carefully chosen to optimise sensor performance.

22. Pellistor systems The standard sensor consists of a matched pair of elements,typically referred to as a detector and compensator (referenceelement). The detector comprises a platinum wire coil embedded within a bead of catalytic material. The compensator is similarexcept that the bead does not contain catalytic material and as aconsequence is inert. Both elements are normally operated in a Wheatstone bridge circuit, that will produce an output only if the resistance of thedetector differs from that of the compensator.

23. Pellistor Principles The bridge is supplied with a constant dc voltage that heats the elements to 500-550°C. A chemical reaction (oxidation) occurs when a combustible gas reaches the sensing element. This increases the temperature of the element. This T rise is transmitted to the platinum heater coil which causes an increase in the resistance of the wire. Theinert element is unaffected andthis results in anelectrical imbalance in the bridge circuit and a detectable output signal is obtained. Theoutput voltage level depends on the type of the detected gas, but shows an excellent linearity with the gas concentration level.

24. Pellistor Principles Theoretically dV=(dR×V)/4R  where dR=k×a×m×Q/C dVOutput voltage R Resistance value of sensor in clean air V Bridge supply voltage dRResistance value variation of the heater k Constant m Gas concentration a Thermal coefficient of heater material C Thermal capacity of sensor Q Molecular heat of combustion of gas

25. Pellistor Applications Catalytic gas sensors (pellistors) are an industrystandard for the detection of flammable gas. Catalytic sensors will oxidise most combustible vapours and as such offer a true "explosimeter". Theirsensitivity to different substances varies, depending on the combustibility of the substance. The sensitivityof a catalytic sensor is defined as its relative sensitivity to methane. It is thus important to identify which substances are most likely to bepresent and to set the sensitivity of the finished detector in accordance with the substance that hasthe lowest relative sensitivity.

26. Semiconductor gas sensors Most widely studied area of solid-state gas sensors is that based on semiconducting oxides. The discovery in 1953 that adsorption of a gas onto the surface of a metal oxide semiconductor produced a large change in itselectrical resistance signalled the advent of mixed metal oxide semiconductor sensor (MMOS) technology. The effect is commercially exploited for only a few oxides due to the requirement for a uniquecombination of resistivity, magnitude of resistance change in gas (sensitivity) and humidity effects. Amongst the oxides which are used as MMOS sensors are ZnO2, TiO2, Cr2TiO3, WO3 and SnO2.

27. MMOS The resistance change is caused by a loss or a gain of surface electrons as a result of adsorbed oxygen reacting with the targetgas. If the oxide is an n-type, there is either a donation (reducing gas) or subtraction (oxidising gas) of electrons from the conduction band. The result is that n-type oxides increase their resistance when oxidising gases such as NO2, O3 are presentwhile reducing gases such as CO, CH4, C2H5OH lead to a reduction in resistance. The converse is true for p-type oxides, such asCr2TiO3. MMOS sensors can be made quantitative, as the magnitude of change in electrical resistance is adirect measure of the concentration of the target gas present.

28. Semi-conductors Semiconductors are materials with electrical conductivities that are intermediate between those of conductors and insulators. -In solids the electrons tend to occupy energy bands: valence band and conduction band. The energy spacing is called the band gap. -For some metals, such as magnesium, the valence and conduction bands overlap. Other metals, such as copper, have empty states in the valence band. -For insulators the valence band is completely filled and the band gap is relatively large, preventing conduction. -Semiconductors have an electronic structure similar to that of insulators, but with a small band gap. Electrons can be excited into the conduction band, making semiconductors somewhat conductive at room temperature. Electrons in the conduction band conduct electricity as does the empty state in the valence band, corresponding to a missing electron (hole) in one of the covalent bonds.

29. Doping n-type doping Si atoms have four valence electrons. If an atom with five valence electrons, (eg. phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), or antimony (Sb)), is incorporated into the crystal lattice, then that atom will have one unbonded electron that can easily be excited into the conduction band. p-type doping In this case a trivalent atom, usually boron, is substituted into the crystal lattice and can accept an electron to complete the fourth bond, resulting in the formation of a hole.

30. MMOS applications A TiO2 MMOS has been in wide use as an oxygen sensor in some automobiles (notably Ford and Nissan). SnO2-based sensors are used for most other gas sensors. Figaro Engineering USA is the leading supplier of these sensors (for applications including residential and commercial/ industrial alarms for toxic and explosive gases, breath alcohol checkers, automatic cookingcontrols for microwave ovens, air quality/ventilation control systems for both homes and automobiles. Etc).

31. SnO2 Sensors In the case of SnO2 sensors, which are n-type semiconductors, the chemistry occuring on the surface involves two main reactions. Chemisorption of oxygen: O2 + 2e- 2O-ads Removal by reducing gas: R + O-ads  ROdes + e- In the first case the surface conductivity decreases (resistivity increases), whilst the reverse occurs upon introduction of a reducing gas.

32. MMOS sensors Since the change in electrical resistance in the sensing oxide to the analyte gas is caused by a surface reaction, commercial gas sensors use highly porous oxidelayers, which are either printed down or deposited onto alumina chips, to provide maximum surface area. A heater track is also present usually on the backside of the chip as both the interference from humidity is minimised and the speed of response is increased upon heating.

33. MMOS selectivity MMOS sensors do not normally discriminate between different target gases. As such, considerable care is taken to ensure themicrostructure of the oxide, its thickness and its running temperature are optimised to improve selectivity. In addition, selectivity is further enhanced through the use of catalytic additives to the oxide, protective coatings and activated-carbon filters.

34. Sensor Arrays-The Electronic Nose Olfactory systemsoperate on the principle that a relatively small number of non-selective receptors allow thediscrimination of thousands of different odours. The electronic nose consists of an array of chemical sensors (usually gas sensors) anda pattern-recognition algorithm (chemometrics). The sensor array "sniffs" the vapours from a sample and provides a setof measurements; the pattern-recogniser compares the pattern of the measurements to stored patternsfor known materials. Gas sensors tend to have very broad selectivity, which in the electronic nose, it is a definiteadvantage. Thus, although every sensor in an array may respond to a given chemical, these responses willusually be different.

35. Digital smells! An example of the electronic nose is given below, where an array of 8 sensors output different patterns for each gas. If the array is “trained” properly it can recognise the individual gases in mixtures (chemometrics).

36. ENoses • NASA’s system • http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2004/images/enose/howenoseworks.ppt • IIT project • http://www.iit.edu/~jrsteach/enose.html • SWIG group • http://www.swig.org.uk/fdetail_21.htm • Warwick project • http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/eng/eed/research/srl/contents/current_research/electronic_nose/

37. Digital Tastes-the electronic tongue This is generally the solution analogue of the electronic nos. That is, sensors that can monitor classes of chemicals in solution are placed in an array to output a pattern that is indicative of a event of interest. My research group (D. Leech) is currently participating in an EU project to devise a bioelectronic tongue for monitoring of water quality. The array is composed of individual amperometric biosensors with different selectivities. The array will be trained by correlating its response patterns to wastewater toxicity, thereby yielding a “tongue” that can “taste”, and hence warn of the presence of, toxicity.

38. Chemometrics

39. Biological taste system Taste compounds Brain Electric responses Taste cell Taste reception Nerve cell Artificial liquid system - electronic tongue Sensor responses Sensor array Computer Pattern recognition Y. Vlasov, A. Legin, A. Rudnitskaya, Anal. Bioanal. Chem.2002, 373, 136. What is an electronic tongue?

40. Applications Best for matching complex samples with subjective endpoints such as odour or flavour. For example, when has milk turned sour? Or, when is a batch of coffee beans optimally roasted? When is a water sample toxic? The array can be trained to match a set of sensor responses to a calibration set produced by the human taste panel orolfactory panel routinely used in food science. Although thesearrays are effective for pure chemicals,conventional methods are often more practical. http://www.electronictongue.com/index.html

41. Areas of application Identification of spilled chemicals. Air quality monitoring Quality of foods and drinks.Water and wastewater analysis. Detection and diagnosis of infections.