Methods and Techniques of Research:

1. Methods and Techniques of Research: An Introduction of the Course Program for Thesis Writing

2. Definition of Research: • Research is “a process of scientific thinking that leads to the discovery or establishment of new knowledge or truth. • It is not a subjective expression of ideas or opinion.” According to these authors, a scientific thinking has these characteristics: (1) It is based on facts; (2) It starts from a complex of problems; (3) It is free from personal bias or opinion; and (4) It uses objective measurement. (Aquino, 2006, p.1).

3. Definition of Research: • “Careful critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in technique and method according to the nature and condition of the problem identified, directed toward the clarification or resolution (or both) of a problem.” (Good, p.464).

4. Definition of Research: • “Research in its broadest sense is an attempt to gain solutions to problems. • More precisely, it is the collection of data in a rigorously controlled situation for the purpose of prediction or explanation.” (Treece and Treece, p. 3)

5. Definition of Research: • Formulated in a more comprehensive form, research may be defined as a • Purposive; • Systematic and; • Scientific process of: • Gathering; • Analyzing; • Classifying; • Organizing; • Presenting and: • Interpreting data for the: • solution of a problem, • for prediction, • for invention, • for the discovery of truth, or • for the expansion or • verification of existing knowledge, all for the preservation and improvement of the quality of human life.

6. Purposes of Research (Aims, Objectives, Goals): • The main or principal purpose and goal of research is “the preservation and improvement of the quality of human life”. • All kinds of research are directed towards this end. “The purpose of research if to serve man,” • “The goal of research is the good life.” (Good and Scates, pp. 9, 14)

7. Specifically: • To discover new facts about known phenomena. • Ex: Alcohol is a known phenomenon and research may turn it into a kind of fuel equal in quality to gasoline. • To find answers to problems which are only partially solved by existing methods and information. • Ex: Cancer is a serious disease which is only partially cured by present methods but due to intensive and continuous research, the disease may be eradicated later on.

8. To discover previously unrecognized substances or elements. • Ex: Previously we had only 92 elements but due to research we now have more than 100. • Discover pathways of action of known substances and elements. • Ex: Due to research we come to know the dangers from the abusive use of unprescribed drugs and some poisonous substances.

9. To order related, valid generalizations into systematized science. • Ex: The result of this purpose research is the science we are now studying in school. • To provide basis for decision-making in business, industry, education, government, and in other undertakings. One approach in decision-making is the research approach (This is basing important decisions upon the results of research)

10. To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity. • Ex: Edison was curious about how a hen hatches her eggs and made a research on that and he invented the incubator. • To find answers to queries by means of scientific methods. • Ex: One important question that may be asked which can be answered only by means of research is: In what setting is life expectancy higher, in the city or in the barrio?

11. To acquire a better and deeper understanding about one phenomenon that can be known and understood better by research. • Ex: Why women are generally smaller than men? • To expand or verify existing knowledge. This usually happens when researches are replicated. Newly discovered facts may be found to expand knowledge gained from a previous research or verified if the same facts are found.

12. To improve educational practices for raising the quality of school products. • Ex: Research surveys often result in the revision of curricula and instructional innovations to maximize the effectiveness of the learning process. • To promote health and prolong life. • Ex: This purpose is very obviously demonstrated in pharmaceutical, nutritional, and medical research.

13. To provide man with more of his basic needs – more and better food, clothing, shelter, etc. • Ex: The work of the International Rice Research Institute in Los Baños, Laguna is a good example of this purpose. • To make work, travel, and communication faster, easier, and more comfortable. • Ex: Due to research airplanes are made to fly faster, land vehicles to run faster, labor-saving machines have been invented and improved, radio and television bring news immediately to the remote areas, and more wonders of electricity are making life easier and better.

14. Characteristics of a Good Research: • Research is systematic • Research is controlled • Research is empirical • Research is analytical • Research is objective, unbiased, and logical • Research employs hypothesis • Research employs qualitative or statistical methods • Research is original work • Research is done by expert • Research is accurate investigation, observation and description • Research is patient and unhurried activity • Research requires an effort-making capacity • Research requires courage

15. Characteristics of a Good Research: Research is systematic It follows an orderly and sequential procedure that leads to the discovery of truth, solution of a problem, or whatever is aimed to be discovered.

16. Characteristics of a Good Research: Research is controlled All variables except those that are tested or being experimented upon are kept constant (not allowed to change or vary) so that the changes made on the subjects of the study can be attributed only to the experimental variable. This is especially true in an experimental research.

17. Characteristics of a Good Research: Research is empirical All the procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived in the same manner by all observers. For instance, one says that there are five persons in the room, all agree to the existence of the five persons. However, if one says that there are five ghosts in the room; one or more at all may believe it because not all people believe in ghosts. Ghosts are examples of data that are not empirical.

18. Characteristics of a Good Research: Research is analytical There is a critical analysis of all the data used so that there is no error in their interpretation.

19. Characteristics of a Good Research: Research is objective, unbiased, and logical All the findings and conclusions are logically based on empirical data and no effort is made to alter the results of the research.

20. Characteristics of a Good Research: Research employs hypothesis This is to guide the investigation process. In experimental studies, hypotheses are expressly stated but in descriptive studies, the specific sub-problems or specific questions serve as the hypotheses and the hypotheses are tested and not proved.

21. Characteristics of a Good Research: Research employs qualitative or statistical methods Data are transformed into numerical measures and are treated statistically to determine their significance or usefulness.

22. Characteristics of a Good Research: Research is original work Except in historical research, data are gathered from primary sources or first-hand sources and not from secondary sources (usually printed materials such as books, or theses, etc.)

23. Characteristics of a Good Research: Research is done by expert The researcher uses valid and carefully designed procedures, valid data-gathering instruments, and valid data. He subjects his data to expert scrutiny.

24. Characteristics of a Good Research: Research is accurate investigation, observation and description In fact, every research activity must be done accurately so that the findings will lead to the formulation of scientific generalizations. All conclusions are based on actual evidence.

25. Characteristics of a Good Research: Research is patient and unhurried activity This is to ensure accuracy. Research that is hurriedly done or conducted carelessly due to racing against time may lead to shaky conclusions and generalizations.

26. Characteristics of a Good Research: Research requires an effort-making capacity No research can be conducted without the exertion of much effort. No one without any effort-making capacity can conduct a research because research involves much work and time.

27. Characteristics of a Good Research: Research requires courage Research requires courage because the researcher oftentimes undergoes hazards, discomforts and the like. At times the researcher encounters public and social disapproval. Also, disagreements with colleagues may arise.

28. Kinds and Classifications of Research: • According to purpose • According to goal • According to the levels of investigation • According to the type of analysis • According to scope • According to choice of answers to problems • According to statistical content • According to time element • Other types and kinds of research are named according to the area or field of activity

29. Kinds and Classifications of Research: • According to purpose: • Predictive or prognostic research has the purpose of determining the future operation of the variables under investigation with the aim of controlling or redirecting such for the better. “Predictive research proposes to give the result from one specific educational practice or pattern and seeks to establish a close statistical connection between characteristics of students and a prediction of educational outcome.”

30. Directive research determines what should be done based on the findings. This is to remedy an unsatisfactory condition if there is any. • Illuminative research is concerned with the interaction of the components of the variable being investigated, as for example, “interaction of the components of educational systems and aims to show the connections among, for example, student characteristics, organizational patterns and policies, and educational consequence.”

31. Kinds and Classifications of Research: • According to goal. • Basic or pure research is done for the development of theories or principles. It is conducted for the intellectual pleasure of learning. Much of this kind of research has been done in psychology and sociology. (Manuel and Medel, p. 18)

32. Applied research is the application of the results of pure research. This is testing the efficacy of theories and principles. For instance, a principle says that praise reinforces learning. To determine if this is true, one conducts an experiment in which there are two classes. In one class, he uses praise but in the other class there is no praise at all. All other things are kept equal. At the end of the experimental period, he gives the same test to the two classes. If the scores of the pupils in the class with praise are significantly higher than those in the class without praise, then the principle is true.

33. Kinds and Classifications of Research: • According to the levels of investigation. • In exploratory research, the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation. • In descriptive research, the researcher studies the relationships of the variables. • In experimental research, the experimenter studies the effects of the variables on each other.

34. Kinds and Classifications of Research: • According to the type of analysis. • In the analytic approach, the researcher attempts to identify and isolate the components of the research situation. • The holistic approach begins with the total situation, focusing attention on the system first and then on its internal relationships.

35. Kinds and Classifications of Research: • According to scope. • Under this category is action research. This type of research is done on a very limited scope to solve a particular problem which is not so big. It is almost problem solving. • In education, it is a firing-line or on the job type of problem solving or research used by the teachers, supervisors, and administrators to improve the quality of their decisions and actions; it seeks more dependable and appropriate means of promoting and evaluating pupil growth in line with specific and general objectives and attempts to improve educational practices without reference to whether findings would be applicable beyond the group studied. (Good, p. 464)

36. Kinds and Classifications of Research: • According to choice of answers to problems. • In evaluation research, all possible courses of action are specified and identified and the researcher tries to find the most advantageous. • In developmental research, the focus is on finding or developing a more suitable instrument or process than has been available.

37. Kinds and Classifications of Research: • According to statistical content. • Quantitative or statistical research is one in which inferential statistics are utilized to determine the results of the study. Inferential statistics such as correlation, chi-square analysis of variance, etc. are used to test the hypothesis. This type of research usually includes comparison studies, cause-and-effect relationships, etc.

38. Non-quantitative research. This research in which the use of quantity or statistics is practically null. This is especially true in anthropological studies where description is usually used. Descriptive data are gathered rather than quantitative data.

39. Kinds and Classifications of Research: • According to time element. • Historical research describes what was. • Descriptive research describes what is. • Experimental research describes what will be. Historical, descriptive, and experimental researches are the three major research methods. All other methods, kinds, and types of research whatever they are called fall under these three major methods.

40. Kinds and Classifications of Research: Other types and kinds of research are named according to the area or field of activity. Hence, we have sociological research, social research, psychological research, anthropological research, physical research, chemical research, industrial research, economics research, health research, nursing research, curriculum research educational research, and countless others.

41. Some Hindrances to Scientific Inquiry: • Tradition • Authority • Inaccurate observation • Overgeneralization • Selective observation • Made-up information • Illogical reasoning • Ego-involvement in understanding • Mystification • To err is human • Dogmatism

42. Tradition: • This is accepting that customs, beliefs, practices, and superstitions are true and are parts of the daily lives of men. • For example: there is a traditional belief among some women that women who are conceiving should avoid eating dark or black foods such as black berries because their children will become dark also. • This may be true or not, but many women believe and practice it without verifying its truth.

43. Authority: • This is accepting without question, an opinion about a certain subject which is given by someone who is considered an authority on the subject. • If an ordinary person says that kissing transmits colds, he is not believed much, he may even be laughed at. On the other hand, when a doctor says the same thing, he is believed without question.

44. Inaccurate Observation: • This is describing wrongly what is actually observed. • For instance, in the dead of a moonlit night, a man sees a shadow in the form of a person and the man concludes at once without any investigation that he has seen a ghost. He does not investigate anymore.

45. Overgeneralization: • This is establishing a pattern out of a few instances. • For example: when one sees one or two Ilocano husbands who are hardworking, responsible, and trustworthy, then he concludes that Ilocano husbands are hardworking, responsible and trustworthy.

46. Selective Observation: • This is persisting to believe an observed pattern from an overgeneralization and ignoring other pertinent patterns. • For example: one sees for the first time one or two prosperous Chinese stores beside a poor, struggling Filipino store. He forms the conclusion that the Chinese are more shrewd and more competitive than Filipinos.

47. Made-up Information: • This is making up information to explain away confusion. • For example: Suppose a buyer buys from a store, goods worth P50.00 and gives to the storekeeper a P100.00 bill. The storekeeper mistakenly gives a change of P40.00. The buyer goes away without counting the change but when he gets home he finds that the change is short of P10.00. Instead of going back to the store to find out why he has a wrong change, he concludes that the storekeeper is a cheater and the members of his family are also cheaters.

48. Illogical Reasoning: • This is attributing something to another without any logical basis. • For instance: because of the extended good weather it may rain at the weekend. Or, because it is sunny it will not rain that day. Or, when a woman is believed to be a sorcerer. • These are beliefs without any logical basis and no effort is exerted to verify them.

49. Ego-involvement in Understanding: • This is giving an explanation when one finds himself in an unfavorable situation. • For instance: when foreigners make a slur on Filipinos, the latter counter that, that is racial discrimination without investigating whether the slight is true or not.

50. Mystification: • This is attributing to supernatural power, the phenomena that cannot be understood. • This is accepting that there are things which are beyond human intelligence to understand and which are exerted to make a scientific inquiry.