CHAPTER 3 OPERATING SYSTEM STRUCTURE

1. CHAPTER 3 OPERATING SYSTEM STRUCTURE • OS Components • OS Services (for designer) • OS API (for programmers) • OS Apps (for application users) • OS Structures • OS Generation

2. OS COMPONENTS • Process management • Memory management • File management • I/O management • Secondary storage management • Networking management • Protection management • Command-interpreter system

3. OS Components: Process management • A process (进程) is a program in execution. • A process needs certain resources, including CPU time, memory, files, and I/O devices, to accomplish its task. • A process is an active (活动) entity whereas a program is a passive (被动) entity. • OS process management activities: • Process creation and deletion. • process suspension and resumption. • Process synchronization. • Process communication. • Process deadlock handling.

4. OS Components: Memory management • Memory (内存) is a large array of words or bytes, each with its own address. • Memory is a repository of quickly accessible data shared by the CPU and I/O devices. • Main memory is a volatile storage device. It loses its contents in the case of system failure. • OS memory management activities: • Keep track of which parts of memory are used and by whom. • Decide which processes are to be loaded when memory space becomes available. • Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed.

5. OS Components: File management • The OS provides a uniform logical view of information storage. (Many different types of physical media.) • A file is a collection of related information defined by its creator. File contents, file formats, file structures, file attributes. • Files are organized into directories. • OS file management activities • File creation and deletion. • Directory creation and deletion. • Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories. • Mapping files onto secondary storage. • File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media.

6. OS Components: I/O management • Too many I/O devices to mention. • The OS is designed to hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the user. • OS I/O management activities: • A general device-driver interface. • A memory-management component that includes buffering, caching, and spooling. • Drivers for specific hardware devices.

7. OS Components: Secondary-storage management • Since main memory (primary storage,内存) is volatile and too small to accommodate all data and programs permanently, the computer system must provide secondary storage （外存）to back up main memory. • Most modern computer systems use disks as the principle on-line storage medium, for both programs and data. • The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with disk management: • Free space management, • Storage allocation, • Disk scheduling.

8. OS Components: Networking management • Network: • Computation speed-up, • Increased data availability, • Enhanced reliability, • Communication (WWW, BBS), • OS networking management activities • Network protocols (TCP/IP), • Network device drivers (Physical layer and data link layer).

9. OS Components: Protection management • A computer system has multiple users and processes. • Protection refers to a mechanism for controlling access by programs, processes, or users to both system and user resources. • Protection mechanism must provide • means for specification of the controls to be imposed, • means for enforcement. • OS protection management activities: • distinguish between authorized and unauthorized usage. • specify the controls to be imposed. • provide a means of enforcement.

10. OS Components: Command-interpreter system • Command-interpreter is the interface between the user and the operating system. Character-based and GUI-based interpreters. • Command-interpreter can be used for both interactive and batch users. • Many commands are given to the operating system by control statements which deal with: • Process creation and management, • Main-memory management, file-system access, • I/O handling, secondary-storage management, • Networking, • Protection.

11. OS SERVICES • Program execution – system capability to load a program into memory and to run it. • I/O operations – since user programs cannot execute I/O operations directly, the operating system must provide some means to perform I/O. • File-system manipulation – program capability to read, write, create, and delete files. • Communications – exchange of information between processes executing either on the same computer or on different systems tied together by a network. Implemented via shared memory or message passing. • Error detection – ensure correct computing by detecting errors in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, or in user programs.

12. OS Services (Additional ) • Resource allocation – allocating resources to multiple users or multiple jobs running at the same time. • Accounting – keeping track of and record which users use how much and what kinds of computer resources for account billing or for accumulating usage statistics. • Protection – ensuring that all access to system resources is controlled. A chain is only as strong as its weakest link.

13. OS API (SYSTEM CALL) • System calls provide the interface between a running program and the operating system. • Generally available as assembly-language instructions. • Languages defined to replace assembly language for systems programming allow system calls to be made directly (e.g., C, C++, Perl) • An example of using system class: copy file1 file2. • How to provide file names, • How to prepare files for input and output, • How to enter the loop, • How to release the resources.

14. OS API (System Call) • Three general methods are used to pass parameters between a running program and the operating system. • Pass parameters in registers. • Store the parameters in a table in memory, and the table address is passed as a parameter in a register. (linux) (see the next slide) • Push (store) the parameters onto the stack by the program, and pop off the stack by operating system.

15. OS API (System Call)

16. OS API: Types of system calls • Process control • File management • Device management • Information maintenance • Communications

17. OS API: Process control • Create and terminate processes: fork, exit. • Execute processes: exec. • Get/set process attributes. • Abort, end processes. • Wait for time, wait for event, signal event. • Allocate and free memory.

18. OS API: Process control (MS-DOS)

19. OS API: Process control (UNIX)

20. OS API: File management • Create file, delete file. • Open, close. • Read, write, reposition. • Get/set file attributes. • Similar operations for directories.

21. OS API: Device management • Request/release device. • Read, write, reposition. • Get/set device attributes. • Logically attach or detach devices.

22. OS API: Communication • Create, delete communication connection. • Send, receive messages. • Transfer status information. • Attach or detach remote devices.

23. OS API: Communication

24. OS API: Information maintenance • Get time or date, set time or date. • Get system data, set system data. • Get process, file or device attributes. • Set process, file or device attributes.

25. OS SYSTEM PROGRAMS • System programs provide a convenient environment for program development and execution. • System programs: • File manipulation; File modification. • Status information. • Programming language support; Program loading and execution. • Communications. • Application programs.

26. System programs • The most important system program: command interpreter. • The command interpreter • can contain code segments, • or invoke utilities to execute commands. • Most users’ view of the operation system is defined by system programs, not the actual system calls.

27. OS STRUCTURES • Monolithic （单层） Structure • Layered （分层） Structure • Microkernel （微内核） Structure • Virtual machine （虚拟机器）Structure

28. OS Structure: Monolithic structure • MS-DOS – written to provide the most functionality in the least space. • not divided into modules. • Although MS-DOS has some structure, its interfaces and levels of functionality are not well separated.

29. OS Structure: Monolithic structure

30. OS Structure: Monolithic structure • UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX operating system had limited structuring. • The original UNIX OS consists of two separable parts: systems programs and the kernel. • The kernel consists of everything below the system-call interface and above the physical hardware. • The kernel provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory management, and other operating-system functions; a large number of functions for one level.

31. OS Structure: Monolithic structure

32. OS Structure: Layered structure • The operating system is divided into a number of layers (levels), each built on top of lower layers. The bottom layer (layer 0), is the hardware; the highest (layer N) is the user interface. • With modularity, layers are selected such that each uses functions (operations) and services of only lower-level layers.

33. OS Structure: Layered structure

34. OS Structure: Layered structure (OS/2)

35. OS Structure: Microkernel structure • Moves as much from the kernel into “user” space. • Communication takes place between user modules using message passing. • Benefits: - easier to extend a microkernel, - easier to port the operating system to new architectures, - more reliable (less code is running in kernel mode), - more secure.

36. OS Structure: Microkernel structure Windows NT Client-Server Structure

37. VIRTUAL MACHINES • A virtual machine takes the layered approach to its logical conclusion. It treats hardware and the operating system kernel as though they were all hardware. • A virtual machine provides an interface identical to the underlying bare hardware. • The operating system creates the illusion of multiple processes, each executing on its own processor with its own (virtual) memory.

38. Virtual Machines • The resources of the physical computer are shared to create the virtual machines. • CPU scheduling can create the appearance that users have their own processor. • Spooling and a file system can provide virtual card readers and virtual line printers. • A normal user time-sharing terminal serves as the virtual machine operator’s console.

39. Virtual Machines: System models

40. Virtual Machines：Implementation • Modes: • virtual user mode and virtual monitor mode, • Actual user mode and actual monitor mode • Time • Whereas the real I/O might have taken 100 milliseconds, the virtual I/O might take less time (because it is spooled) or more time (because it is interpreted.) • The CPU is being multi-programmed among many virtual machines, further slowing down the virtual machines in unpredictable ways.

41. Virtual Machines: Benefits • Two advantages • To provide a robust level of security • no direct sharing of resources. • Two solutions • To allow system development to be done easily • A perfect vehicle for OS research and development. • difficult to implement due to the effort required to provide an exact duplicate to the underlying machine. • Wine for Linux.

42. Virtual Machines: JVM • Compiled Java programs are platform-neutral bytecodes executed by a Java Virtual Machine (JVM). • JVM consists of - class loader - class verifier - runtime interpreter • Just-In-Time (JIT) compilers increase performance

43. Virtual Machines: JVM

44. SYSTEM DESIGN, IMPLEMENTATION, AND GENERATION • System design goals • System type: batch, time shared, single user, multi-user, distributed, real time, or general purpose • Two goals • User goals – operating system should be convenient to use, easy to learn, reliable, safe, and fast. • System goals – operating system should be easy to design, implement, and maintain, as well as flexible, reliable, error-free, and efficient.

45. System design, implementation, and generation • Mechanisms and policies • Mechanisms determine how to do something, policies decide what will be done. • The separation of policy from mechanism is a very important principle, it allows maximum flexibility if policy decisions are to be changed later.

46. System design, implementation, and generation • System implementation • Traditionally written in assembly language, operating systems can now be written in higher-level languages. • Code written in a high-level language: • can be written faster. • is more compact. • is easier to understand and debug. • An operating system is far easier to port (move to some other hardware) if it is written in a high-level language.

47. System design, implementation, and generation System generation • Operating systems are designed to run on any of a class of machines; the system must be configured for each specific computer site. • SYSGEN program obtains information concerning the specific configuration of the hardware system. How to use this system information • Recompiling, • Relinking. (SCO, Linux) • Table-driven. (Linux) • Booting– starting a computer by loading the kernel. Bootstrap program– code stored in ROM that is able to locate the kernel, load it into memory, and start its execution.