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The Encoding and Storage of Memory: Understanding the Levels, Strategies, and Processes

This article explores the various levels of encoding and storage in memory, including attention, levels of processing, enrichment strategies, and the durability and capacity of storage. It also delves into the different types of memory, such as sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, as well as the organization and retrieval of information from memory. Additionally, it discusses the phenomena of tip-of-the-tongue, context reinstatement, memory reconstruction, misinformation effect, source monitoring, and reality monitoring.

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The Encoding and Storage of Memory: Understanding the Levels, Strategies, and Processes

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  1. MEMORY You think it’s good? Well, you’re wrong.

  2. ENCODING • DEF: forming a memory code • Requires attention: focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events • Attention is selective; acts as a filter

  3. LEVELS OF PROCESSING • Craik and Lockhart (1972) propose incoming info can be processed at different levels • 3 levels for verbal info.: • 1: Structural encoding: shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus

  4. LEVELS OF PROCESSING CONTINUED • Phonemic encoding: emphasizes what a word sounds like • Semantic encoding: emphasizes meaning of verbal input; thinking about the objects and actions the word represents • Levels of Processing Theory: deeper levels of processing result in longer lasting memory codes

  5. ENRICHING ENCODING • Elaboration: linking a stimulus to other info at the time of encoding • Helps enhance semantic encoding • Involves thinking of examples to illustrate the idea

  6. VISUAL IMAGERY • Creating visual images to represent words to be remembered • Allan Paivio: easier to form images for concrete words • Dual-coding theory: holds that memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall

  7. SELF-REFERENT ENCODING • DEF: deciding how or whether info is personally relevant • It is easier to remember something if it is meaningful to you

  8. STORAGE: MAINTAINING INFORMATION IN MEMORY Storage is maintaining info in memory over time

  9. SENSORY MEMORY • DEF: preserves info in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second • Gives additional time to recognize stimulus • Visual and auditory memory trace decays after ¼ of a second

  10. SHORT-TERM MEMORY • STM is a limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed info for up to 20 seconds • Rehearsal: process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the info

  11. DURABILITY OF STORAGE • Ability to recall decays considerably after only 15 seconds • This is due to time-related decay and interference from competing stimuli

  12. CAPACITY OF STORAGE • 1956: George Miller publishes “Magical Number 7” paper • Claims you can store 7 items (+ or – 2) in STM • You can increase capacity by Chunking: grouping familiar stimuli and storing as a single unit

  13. STM AS “WORKING Memory” • Alan Baddeley: “Working memory” consists of 3 parts: • 1: Phonological rehearsal loop(ex: reciting a phone #)—only 2 seconds of info • 2: Visuospatial sketchpad: allows to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images • 3: Executive control system: handles info as you engage in reasoning and decision making

  14. LONG-TERM MEMORY • DEF: an unlimited (virtually) capacity store that can hold info over lengthy periods of time

  15. LONG-TERM MEMORY PERMANENT? • Flash-bulb memories: unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events • Hypnosis induced memories • ESB triggering long-lost memories

  16. STM AND LTM SEPARATE • Dominant thought today is that STM is a tiny and constantly changing portion of LTM

  17. HOW IS KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTED AND ORGANIZED IN MEMORY?

  18. CLUSTERING AND CONCEPTUAL HIERARCHIES • Clustering: tendency to remember similar or related items in a group • Conceptual hierarchy: multilevel classification system based on common properties among items

  19. SCHEMAS • Schema: an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event

  20. SCRIPTS • Script: organizes what people know about common activities • A kind of schema

  21. SEMANTIC NETWORKS • DEF: consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts • Spreading activation: naturally thinking of related words

  22. CONNECTIONIST NETWORKS AND PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING (PDP) • PDP models assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks • PDP models assert that specific memories correspond to particular patterns of activation in these networks

  23. RETRIEVAL: GETTING INFORMATION OUT OF MEMORY

  24. TIP-OF-THE-TONGUE PHENOMENON • DEF: temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by the feeling that it’s just out of reach • Similar memories are interfering

  25. REINSTATING THE CONTEXT OF AN EVENT • Context cues facilitate the retrieval of info. • Remembering the origin of the thought

  26. RECONSTRUCTING MEMORIES AND MISINFORMATION EFFECT • Distortions in recall occur b/c subjects reconstruct a story to fit w/ their established schemas • Theories: overwriting, interference, and…

  27. SOURCE-MONITORING • Def: process of making attributions about the original memories • Source-monitoring error: when a memory derived from a source is misattributed to another source • Reality monitoring: process of deciding whether memories are based on external or internal sources

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