Understanding Scientific Research Methods

1. Unit I Introduction to Research Dr Asha P Shetty

2. Objectives On completion of the unit you are able to: • Define research • Identify the need of the research • Describe the research process • Distinguish various approaches/types/kinds of research

3. Introduction • Researchers Vs Research Project • Knowledge =beneficial

4. Methods of acquiring knowledge a)Tradition and Authority b) Clinical experience and trial and error, Intuition c) Logical Reasoning d) Assembled information (e.g., quality improvement data, cost data, risk data) e)Disciplined Research

5. Knowledge • what is known to be (facts) • what is believed to be. Delivered through the use of some logic or empirical testing. Fact is truth supported by repeated observation and replication

6. Circularity aspect of fact, observation & theory Observations Newfact Logical theory

7. Facts help initiate theory and enable us reformulate it • Facts cause rejection of theories, which do not fit into it • Facts change the focus of orientation • Facts clarify and refine theory

8. Scientific Method • Scientific method is the systematic collection of data (FACTS) and their theoretical treatment through proper observation, experimentation and interpretation. Asha P Shetty

9. Scientific method attempts to achieve a systematic interpretation of facts by experimentation, observation and logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying proportions Asha P Shetty

10. Scientific research Vs Problem solving

11. Research • Systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions or solve problems. -Polit & Beck, 2004

12. Research is “ …… the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested..”

13. Research - Definition • Systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles or theories, resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events. • Research is the systematic investigation of phenomena of interest in order to describe, explain or predict variables. • Research – systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of natural phenomena and / or relationships among natural phenomena.

14. Need for Research • Evidence based : clinically appropriate, cost-effective and result in positive outcomes for clients. 2) Increasingly accountable. 3) Help in reducing costs of care and at the same time improve health care outcomes. 4) Understanding the different dimensions of profession

15. Basic Concepts • Data : Pieces of information obtained in the course of investigation • Qualitative data/Quantitative data • Coding – It is an operation to make research data amenable to analysis

16. Operational Definition: Specifies the operations that researchers must perform to collect the required information. It should correspond to conceptual definition. • An operational definition assigns meaning to a construct or a variable by specifying the activities or operation necessary to measure it.

17. Reliability – Accuracy and consistency of information obtained in a study • Validity: Whether there is evidence to support the assumption that the methods are really measuring the abstract concepts they intend to measure • Bias- It is an influence that produces a distortion in the study results

18. An assumptionis a proposition that is taken for granted, in other words, that is treated for the sake of a given discussion as if it were known to be true. • An assumption is a statement that is believed to be true. • It is a proposition whose truth is either self evident or has been satisfactorily established by earlier research

19. Delimitations • There may be many aspects of the problem that need to be explored, but it is difficult to cover all aspects in a single research study, because of limited time, finance, facilities and other reasons. • Delimitations indicate the cut off points beyond which the researcher does not intend to probe. • It includes those restrictions that the researcher placed on the study prior to gathering data

20. Limitations • The limitations indicate the weaknesses of the entire study, as the researcher perceives them. • The reader looks for the shortcomings for two reasons: • To identify whether the researcher has recognized the flaws. • To know the difficulties the researcher has faced which are valuable for future researcher.

21. ROL: Literature review is an organized written presentation of what has been published on a topic by scholars. • Subjects or study participants or respondents. Informants or key informants. • Study / investigation/ research project. • Researcher or investigator or scientist • Collaborative research. • Project Director or Principal investigator • Co- investigators

22. Consultants • Funder or sponsor • Reviewers • Peer reviewers • Mentors • Site – overall location for the research • Settings – more specific places where data collection occurs

23. Research Objectives Statement of purpose The researcher’s summary of the overall study goal Research aims or objectives The specific accomplishments to be achieved by conducting the study

24. Research objective Objectives describe what researcher wants to achieve on completion of the research study. It should be written as observable and achievable

25. SMART Specific Measurable Achievable Relevant Time Bound

26. Variables • are the central building blocks of quantitative studies • should be defined accurately • should be quantifiable – by valid & relative means

27. Variables • A characteristic or quality that takes on different values, i.e., that varies from one person to the next • Examples: • Blood type • Weight • Length of stay in hospital

28. Definition: A characteristic or attribute of a person or object that varies (i.e. takes on different values) within the population under study (e.g.: age, Heart rate etc.). A variable is a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned e.g. SES is a variable

29. TYPES OF VARIABLES Independent Variable: It’s a variable that stands above and is not dependent on any other. It is stated first in a hypothesis, followed by the dependent variable In experimental research the independent variable is manipulated by the researcher, it is the presumed “cause” & its effect on the dependent variable is observed. criterion variable

30. Dependent Variable • It is the effect of the action of the independent variable and cannot exist by itself. • It is the outcome variable. • The independent variable is the presumed cause for the resulting effect on the dependent variable • Example: Smoking (IV) Lung cancer (DV)

31. Extraneous Variable • An uncontrolled variable/intervening variable/confounding variable comes between the dependent & the independent variable. • Greatly influences the results of a study. • These lie outside the interest, or the control of the researcher. But can be minimized by the research design & through statistics.

32. Active Vs Attribute Variables Active variable - that are manipulated or created Attribute variables – measured or observed variables that cannot be manipulated or influenced by the researcher but preexist as characteristics in the investigation. E.g. intelligence, aptitude, attitude ; yet they may be present or vary under population under study . Organismic variable: age , gender, race, heredity

33. Continuous Vs Categorical Variables • Continuous variable is capable of taking on an ordered set of values within a certain range . E.g. height, weight. • By contrast, a discrete variable is one that has a finite number of values between any two points, representing discrete quantities. E.g., marital status, gender.

34. Categorical Variables • belong to a kind of measurement called nominal i.e. they are two or more subsets of the set of objects being measured. • take only a handful of discrete non quantitative values .

35. Relationships A bond or connection between variables. • Cause-and-effect (causal) relationship (e.g., cigarette smoking and lung cancer) • Functional (associative) relationship (e.g., gender and life expectancy)

36. Hypotheses • The researcher’s predictions about relationships among variables • The term derives from the Greek, hypotithenai meaning "to put under" or "to suppose.“ • Translates the research problem and purpose into clear explanation or prediction of the expected results or outcomes of the study

37. Definition: • Research hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two or more variables. • A hypothesis is a formal statement of the expected relationships between two or more variable in a specified population • Hypothesis can be considered as intelligent hunches, educated guesses or predictions that can assist the researcher in seeking the solution or answer to the research questions

38. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS • It is testable i.e., Variables, should be measurable • It is logical • It is directly related to the research problem • It is simple, clear and concise • It represents a single unit or subset of the problem. • It is factually and theoretically based. • It states a relationship between Variables. • It sets the limits of the study.

39. PURPOSE OF HYPOTHESIS: • To guide scientific enquiry • Hypothesis testing is a means of generating knowledge • Provide bridge between theory and reality they unify two domains. • It provides a statement about a specific relationship between phenomena that allows this relationship to be tested empirically

40. ELEMENTS OF HYPOTHESIS: • Dependent and independent variables. • Some type of relationship between independent and dependent variable. • the direction of change ,ie. stating “ more or less”, “higher or lower” increased or decreased • it mentions the subjects ie, the population being studied • Level of significance

41. Hypotheses how do I go about developing hypotheses? Processes are • Induction • Deduction

42. Types of hypothesis 1.Simple vs. complex or multivariate 2. Directional vs. non- directional 3. Research vs. statistical

43. THANK YOU