UNIVERSITY OF MERSİN,2010

1. UNIVERSITY OF MERSİN,2010 DIDEM YAPICI NILISAH AKRAY

2. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS • It is the relationship between the human mind and language.

3. Psycholinguistics is concerned with how human brain organize language in mind: the process of understanding language system the storing the language in human mind examining language as a product of human mind • The product is the evidence of the way in which human being organise their thoughts and impose patterns upon their experiences.

4. SLA; It includes sociolinguistics, social psychology and educational psychology. It tends to be more eclectic in the methods they employ. PSYCHOLİNGUİSTİCS; It based on heavily a body of theory provided by cognitive psychology. It uses a limited range of established experimental techniques. SLA vs. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

5. COMMUNICATION Traffic lights Hand signals Facial expressions Body language Notes Smiles Wings Intention of communication=conveying a message LANGUAGE Voluntary Symbolic Systematic Two different modalities: speech and writing SPEECH • Its character is vocalisation. • Two determining factors to produce • speech-like sounds: • 1)The shape, size and position of the articulations • 2)The ability to breathe and utter sounds at the same time • Types of speech which are less meaningful than others; • Expletives • Phatic utterances

6. NATIVIST; Human infant must have some kind of genetically transmitted language faculty in order to acquire rapidly and successfully as it does. COGNITIVIST; The differences of the operation of the brain enable us to evolve language when other species could not. In what way do our brains differ from those of other primates which do not possess language?

7. Where is language located in the brain? Some commentators suggest that language must be an independent faculty and not part of our general powers of thought and reason. There is a difference between right side and left side of the brain in the way of contributing to language. Age also make difference in establishing the language. e.g. In infancy language ability in the brain can relocate itself on the right when necessary.

8. The quick geography of the brain:

9. The differences between human beings and the primates: The cortex is much more extensive. Human pre-frontal areas are up to six times bigger than the primates. The brains of other species are divided into two hemispheres. In human beings the motor area is given over to the control of mouth, tongue and jaw. The human cerebellum is very much larger than in other species. The operation of the larynx is mainly or entirely controlled by the lower parts of the brain in other species.

10. Psycholinguistics is concerned with what we know of words and how they operate: • Word is a movable unit of meaning which cannot be broken into smaller free-standing pieces. Lexical items • Psycholinguistics studies of vocabulary and how we use it fall into three areas: • Lexical entries • Lexical storage • Lexical access

11. Content vs. function words theBUNCHofFLOWERSthat heBOUGHTforJANE. • Content words: listener not only has to find a match in the phonological store but also has to access the meaning of the word. • Function words: a listener only needs to match the word to a phonological sequence which is stored in mind.

12. What information do we need in order to be able to recognize and understand an item of vocabulary when we encounter in speech and writing? ALL WE NEED IS KNOWING ABOUT FORM AND MEANING. Contents of a lexical entry

13. FORM • Phonological/Orthographic information: Phonological orthographic form form /gıv/ give MEANING Note: variation in speech and writing text, homonymy. • Morphological information: gave GIVE HAPPY unhappy (have) given

14. MEANING • Syntax: Vocabulary and grammar are closely linked. Lexical entry needs to contain information on word class and on types of syntactic structure. e.g. GIVE something to somebody GIVE somebody something • Range of senses: Lemma contains range of meanings. e.g. I turned the corner. Turn over the page. The room turned cold.

15. Lexical storage has two extremely important issues: • The area of meaning covered by any given word is heavily influenced by the existence of other words alongside it. e.g. happy=content, pleased or delighted • The area of meaning that we associate with a word is heavily dependent upon the way in which we categorise the world around us. e.g. English uses one verb to be, but Spanish has two (temporary being vs permanent being) and Portuguese has three.

16. Lexical storage and lexical access: • Lexical storage: how words are stored in our minds in relation to each other. • Lexical access: how we reach a word when we need it. Storage assists access: Form and Meaning can interact in helping us to retrieve to a word that we need and how an infant or a foreign- language learner acquires their vocabulary. e.g. A listener who hears the word CARROT; • In form, the initial sounds link in to the whole set of words beginning with /kae/ • In meaning, the context might indicate that the current topic was vegetables and lead the listener to open up the set of vegetables.

17. WEAK AND STRONG LINKS • According to connectionist: • Fish and Chips strong connection because it is used frequently • Fish and River weak connection because it is used less frequently • Spreading activation: • DOCTOR patient, hospital, medicine Note: spreading activation use priming.

18. An information processing approach • The basic idea is that raw data is acted upon stage by stage by mind and is progressively reshaped. identify the words in the question organise the words into a syntactic pattern turn the question into a proposition (an abstract idea) search your memory for information retrieve the information turn the information into words utter the words

20. Perception and pattern recognition • Sensation: the unanalysed experience of sound meeting one’s ear or light meeting one’s eye. • Perception: mental operation involved in analysing what signals contains. • The process involves; • Breaking the input into different characteristics • Matching the whole representation which is based upon previous experiences and is stored permanently in long-term memory. • Allocating an identity or a category to the sensation.

21. SENSORY STORES (speech or writing) SHORT TERM MEMORY LONG TERM MEMORY External stimulus A visual sensory stores referred to as iconic memory. An auditory sensory stores referred to as echoic memory. Stores current information and holds temporary information for immediate purposes. It will be explained in another slide. • A three-store model of human memory

22. Prosessing as subject to limitation • Working memory is believed to have a very limited capacity for information. This has important consequences for the way in which we process language: • Some language tasks( listening and speaking simultaneously) make impossibly heavy demands on Working Memory • We need rapidly transform the language we hear and read into pieces of abstract information. This way is easier to retrain a few pieces of information than many words. • We constantly need to transfer information into Long Term Memory to avoid congestion in Working Memory

23. PROCESSİNG AS A CONSTRUCTİVE OPERATİON Speaker/writer encodes a message listener/reader decodes the message THUS: Listening/Reading is active in the process. • Minds of listener or reader are actively engaged in constructing a meaning representation on the basis of evidence they receive. Then they attach what they have heard or read on their current knowledge. So that receptive skills not just construct the meaning but also integrate it into what has already understood. • Listeners/reader do not simply receive a message, they also may have remake intention of the writer/speaker. • Listener/reader simply selects what they want from a piece of speech and writing.

24. LEVEL OF REPRESENTATİON • The process of producing or understanding language involves taking linguistic information through a series of stages and changing it at each step. • BOTTOM-DOWN PROCESS: Assembling larger units from smaller ones. • It is a data-driven process: it relies upon evidence that is physically presents. • TOP-DOWN PROCESS: using higher level of information to support lower-level process. • It is a knowledge-driven process: it relies upon external information.

25. Writing system: a method of writing such as the alphabetA script: a form of writing (Arabic script, Greek script)An orthography: the writing convention of a particular language WRİTİNG SYSTEM Alphabets syllabaries logographic system It is a symbol for İt is a symbol for It is a symbol for each phoneme of the each syllable of the each word of the language. Language language.

26. LOGOGRAPHIC SYSTEM & ALPHABETIC SYSTEM • Logographic systemrepresent whole words and sometimes represent semantic relation between words. It also features in its writing system which represent how words are said and thus makes an association between homophones. • Alphabetic systemis based on phonological system. Transparent Orthography Opaque Orthography It is a one-to-one It can be example of English relationship between Written forms and sounds • Words can be spelt using GPC rules (canteen, hospitality) • Words can be spelt by analogy with other words (light, rough) • Words that are unique in their spelling

27. Logographic system It makes great demands on the writer’s memory store. It throws up ambiguities which the reader has to resolve by reference to context. Phonologically based system In Spanish, it relies upon a set of internalised fail-safe GPC rules. In English, it relies upon stored whole-word forms, partly upon GPC rule and partly upon analogy. IS ONE SYSTEM EASIER?

28. DECODING IN READING • There is a lower level processing and higher level processing as in writing. • Lower Level Processes: It include decoding ( recognizing words in the text) and lexical entries. They are highly automatic in a skilled reader. This means that they make few demands upon Working Memory, leaving capacity spare for higher level processes such as building overall meaning. • Higher Level Processes: Include applying background knowledge to the text, inferring meaning which is not explicitly stated in the text, interpreting the writer’s intention and constructing a global meaning representation of the text. They are much more conscious control if the reader, who is sometimes able to report on them.

29. Decoding: Recognizing written forms by reference to spoken ones. a. A Sub-lexical Route The lexical route is usually the faster a lexical route because it is more READ automatic; but we need sub-lexical route /r+i:+d/ when we have to a sub-lexical route match unfamiliar words with their spoken forms.

30. Decoding: Recognizing written forms by reference to spoken ones. b. Analogy: Readers/Writers do not simply make use of the GPC rules that link graphemes and phonemes but also rely upon between new words and those that we already know. c. Neighborhood Effect: Phonological criteria play a part not just when we have to assign pronunciation to unknown words but in the processing of known written words. e.g. READ /ri:d/ = Bead, Lead, Plead /red/ = Head, Dead, Tread

31. SOME FURTHER THOUGHTS ON THE DUAL-ROUTE MODEL • Phonology and learning to read • The whole word approach based upon what we have called the ‘lexical route’ • The phonics approach based upon mastering GPC rule • An analogy approach, teaching new words by reference to known words. The combination of all three makes learning to read. • Other languages: they use many approaches but it is generally known that lexical route is more rapid than a sub-lexical one.

32. INNER SPEECH • In what forms do we try to store sentences in mind? • We rehearse the sentences in something like a spoken form- an ‘inner voice’ in our head. Why spoken form is more preferable than a visual? • Spoken information in memory is more durable term than visual. • If we store words in spoken form, they are less likely to interfere with the visual process of decoding words on page.

33. THE FEATURES OF INNER SPEECH • Encoding of reading takes place; but that it must be in a reduced form. • It might features key words only, or parts of words or content words without functors. • The reader analyses what the inner voice says, they receive the impression that it encodes in full everything they have read. • It supports comprehension process. • It enable us to hold a string of words in memory while we impose a syntactic pattern upon them.

34. ISSUES IN LISTENING: • The linearity issue: The spoken signal does not consist of a string of phonemes but written language consists of a string of letters. • The non-invariance issue: Because of co-articulation effect, researches have studied the cues that are physically present in the speech stream, but they have failed to find any combination of features that is peculiar to one phoneme alone. • The normalisation issue: Every speaker has a distinctive voice. • The accommodation issue: A speaker has sometimes a difficult move from one articulatory setting to another. The speaker often adopts short cut and adjusts the first sound to the second. • The lexical segmentation issue: • The storage issue:

35. MOTOR THEORY • This theory was proposed by Liberman and his colleagues at the Haskins Laboratories in the USA. • This theory suggested that we are able to interpret the sounds we hear in connected speech by relating them to the muscular movements that we make when producing them.

36. UNIT OF PERCEPTUAL PROCESSING • The pre-literate children find the teaching of reading very difficult to break a spoken word into its component sounds. • Like the pre-literate children, there is similar evidence from studies of illiterate adults.

37. CHARACTERISTICS OF SPEECH • John Laver in his phonetics study suggests that there are three types of speech. They are related to the phonological phrase. • In continuous fluent speech, a speaking turn of several phonological phrases is produced without pauses. • In non-continuous fluent speech, a speaking turn of several phonological phrases has pauses between the phrases but they coincide with clause boundaries. • In non-continuous hesitant speech, there are hesitation pauses which fall within phonological phrases.

38. LONG TERM MEMORY It is intentional and even conscious learning.

39. SCHEMA THEORY • Schema is a set of interrelated features which we associate with an entity or concept. • There are three types of schema in process of language information: • ‘Word knowledge’: including encyclopedic knowledge and previous knowledge of speaker or writer. This helps us to construct a content schema for a text. • Knowledge built up from the text so far: a current meaning representation. • Text schema: this can be extended to include; previous experience of the type of task that listener/reader has to perform.

40. IN SUMMARY • Word knowledge serves to; • Provide a framework for understanding • Enable predictions about the text against which the actual contents are matched • Support recall • Processing a text involves; • Setting up representation of the text so far into which new information is constantly integrated • Determining what is/is not important in the text • Previous experience of a text types helps us to • Recognise how information is likely to be distributed • Recognise how should engage with the speaker or writer

41. A SCHEMA FRAMEWORK & SHARED KNOWLEDGE • In content schema understanding of the text is very important for this reason topic about the text has important role in understanding of text. • In shared knowledge; scripts enables writers/speakers to adopt a kind of shorthand. • We need to make associations between sentences.

42. EXCEPTİONAL CIRCUMSTANCES

43. DEAFNESS • Deaf people are regarded as possessing a language in sign language. • For them, spoken and written English are effectively a late-acquired second language, mediated through Sign. • It leads to delayed acquisition- infants ,ay reach fifty-word threshold around ten months later then their hearing peers.

44. BLİNDNESS ? Doesvisualimpairment lead to delays in language acquisition? • Blind infant certainly appears to acquire a phonological system a little more slowly than normal child. • Their first words emerge at about the same time as those of sighted infants. • They generally engage less in sorting activities; this suggests that blindness may limit the capacity to form categories, with consequences for vocabulary acquisition.

45. LANGUAGE DISORDERSIt can be developmental or it can be acquired later • Problem of fluency • Psychological Problems; stuttering, malformation, malformation of the articulators (mouth, tongue, palate, etc.) • So long as hearing and intelligence are not impaired, the ability to articulate the sounds of speech does not prevent a child from developing language understanding or inner speech. • Problems of written language • Dyslexia (reading difficulty), dysgraphia ( writing problem) • Dyslexia shows up as a mismatch between low achievement in reading and an average or high level of intelligence. However, it is often accompanied by difficulty in specific cognitive areas- including spatial intelligence, temporal intelligence, mathematical operations.

46. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND COGNITION • All human beings grow up to achieve full competence in their native tongue, regardless of wide variations in their intelligence and environment. Language may develop independently of general cognition. Some of the evidence of language acquired in `exceptional circumstances` appears to contradict this and some appears to support it.

47. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND COGNITION • Studies of Down`s Syndrome suggest a connection between cognitive impairment and failure to acquire full linguistic competence. They show limitations of attention, short-term memory and perceptual discrimination. They acquire only a limited vocabulary and utterances usually remain short and telegraphic. This issue is hard to resolve because of the wide differences in individual performance and a delay in one area of language might affect the course of another.

48. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND COGNITION • Autism represents a combination of cognitive and social impairment. Child may be mute until the age of five or may do little more than echo the words that adults say to them. • There is a lack of theory of mind that is the ability to see the world from the point of view of another person. • Down`s Syndrome and autism appear to demonstrate links between cognitive development and language.

49. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND COGNITION • Specific language impairment: a child who appears otherwise normal fails to acquire language like its peers. These children achieve a linguistic competence that is less than complete. e.g. they restrict vocabulary or make some basic grammar mistake. • They may show problems of comprehension as well as problems of production. They have difficulty in sustaining a contextual framework for conversation.

50. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND COGNITION • Sufferers from Williams Syndrome present signs of cognitive impairment, including low IQ, yet their language competence appears to be relatively unaffected. This happens because of the imbalances in brain structure, with a reduction of some areas but sparing of the cerebellum and frontal lobes. • A similar mystery attends savants. These are individuals who are severely mentally impaired, but show exceptional gifts, usually in relation to painting and music.