Digital Reference: Statistics & Data

1. Digital Reference: Statistics & Data LIS 536 March 4, 2009 Chuck Humphrey University of Alberta

2. Outline • Quantitative digital content • Distinguishing between statistics and data • The basics about statistics and data as digital information • The reference interview and search strategies • Probe to determine if the patron wants statistics or data • If statistics, are they likely official statistics or non-official statistics? • Strategies for searching for statistics • Government publications approach • Data approach • If data, need to think about the life cycle of data • An example of from the Canadian National Population Health Survey, 1994 • Conditions of access can become a barrier • Formats matter to your patrons • Citations for statistics and data

3. Distinguishing statistics from data

4. Statistics numeric summaries known as facts/figures derived from data, i.e, processed from data presentation-ready format Data numeric files created and organized for computer analysis requires computer processing not in a display format How statistics and data differ

5. A statistic can’t be real without data • A ‘real’ statistic requires a data source. If the publisher of a statistic can’t tell you the data source behind a statistic, you should question that the statistic is ‘real.’ After all, people do make up statistics. • Classic example: a statistic in a 1986 Newsweek article claimed that a 40-year-old woman had a better chance of being killed by a terrorist than of getting married (2.6 percent). Twenty years later, Newsweek admitted that this “comparison wasn’t in the study.”

6. A statistic can’t be real without data • A statistic may have been derived from poor quality data and, consequently, may be of questionable value. But nevertheless, it is a ‘real’ statistic. • For example, a debate erupted over a Lancet article on the number of civilians deaths in Iraq following the first 18 months after the invasion. • The desire is to have quality statistics that are derived from quality data.

7. Statistics Canada’s criteria • Statistics Canada uses the following criteria to define quality statistics or statistics “fit for use” • Relevance: addresses issues of important to users • Accuracy: degree it describes what it was designed to measure • Timeliness: the delay between when the information was collected and when it is made available • Accessibility: the ease to which the information can be obtained by users • Interpretability: access to metadata that facilitates interpretation and use • Coherence: the fit with other statistical information through the use of standard concepts, classifications and target populations

8. Statistics are about definitions

9. You may think of statistics as being just numbers, but these numbers represent summaries of measurements or observations that have a conceptual meaning. Deriving statistics from data is dependent on definitions of the concept that is being summarized. Statistics are about definitions!

10. Statistics are about definitions! • Consider the following example from the Canadian Census on the data behind statistics about visible minorities. This table displays the size of the visible minority population in Canada from the 2006 Census. Visible Minority Groups (15), Generation Status (4), Age Groups (9) and Sex (3) for the Population 15 Years and Over of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census - 20% Sample Data

11. Statistics are about definitions! • How is visible minority status identified in the Census? Are aboriginals among the visible minority in Canada? What is the definition of visible minority?

14. Statistics involve classifications • The definitions that shape statistics specify the metric of the data they summarize (for example, Canadian dollars) or the categories used to classify things if a statistic represents counts or frequencies. In this latter case, classification systems are used to identify categories of membership in a concept’s definition. • Some classification systems are based on standards while others are based on convention or practice. • For an example of a standard, see the North American Industrial Classification System (NAICS).

15. Statistics are presentation ready • Tables and charts (or graphs) are typically used to display many statistics at once. You will find statistics sprinkled in text as part of a narrative describing some phenomenon; but tables and charts are the primary methods of organizing and presenting statistics.

16. A quick review • To this point, we have established that: • Statistics are ‘real’ only if they are derived from data; • Statistics are dependent of definitions of the concepts they summarize; • Statistics that represent counts of things in the data employ classification systems, which are based either on standards or convention; and • Statistics are typically organized for display using tables or charts.

17. Characteristics of statistics • To discover some additional characteristics of statistics, we will examine a table published by Statistics Canada about the average undergraduate tuition fees for full-time students by field of study. • While this table does not display all of the information that I want to find in a published statistical table, it is fairly comprehensive. • Refer to the handout entitled, “Tips for Reading a Statistical Table,” to find a full list of the information that I do want to find in a statistical table.

20. What about data? • It is helpful to understand some basics about the origins of data, especially since statistics are derived from data. As we will see later, having a good understanding of data can greatly help in the search for statistics. • There are three generic methods by which data are produced. Statistics are generated from the data produced out of all of these methods. Computational Methods Observational Methods Experimental Methods

21. Methods producing data

22. Methods producing data • A particular discipline or field of study will tend to be dominated by one of these three methods, although outputs may also exist from the other two methods. Consequently, the knowledge disseminated within a field is often fairly homogeneous in the way statistical information is used and reported. • We will see later how knowing the method from which data are derived and the life cycle in which statistics are produced can help in the search for statistics.

23. Reference interview • When a patron is looking for quantitative information, begin by determining if she/he is looking for statistics or data. • Never take at face value that a patron asking for data really wants data. • Probe by asking follow up questions based on the characteristics that distinguish statistics from data. What are some questions that you might ask to help determine if you should be looking for statistics or data?

24. Numeric Chart of numeric information Okay, we determined that our patron wants statistics. What next?

25. Numeric Chart of numeric information We behave like a government publications librarian and begin by filtering on the basis of official or non-official status for the statistics being sought.

26. Official vs. non-official statistics • Official statistics are those produced by national agencies with a public mandate (such as Statistics Canada or the Office for National Statistics in the UK) and international organizations with mandates from other governments (such as the UN). • Non-official statistics are produced by all other bodies, including trade associations, professional organizations, banks, consultants, marketing companies, newspapers, research institutes, etc.

27. Official statistics: no one definition • No single definition of official statistics exists upon which national statistical agencies agree. • Consulting some of the national statistical agencies, you will find official statistics characterized as a critical element of open and accountable government (NZ), as different viewpoints of what statistics are (UK) and as a process for establishing a “fitness for use” (Canada).

28. Official statistics (NZ) “Official statistics are statistics produced by government agencies to: • shed light on economic and social conditions • develop, implement and monitor policies • inform decision making, debate and discussion both within government and the wider community Government and its administrative arms need official statistics for policy development, implementation and evaluation. The public at large have similar information needs in order to evaluate government policy, to ensure public accountability, and to be adequately informed about social and economic conditions.”

29. Official statistics (UK) “Official statistics” can mean different things to different people. There are three broad ways of defining it. First, it may be defined in terms of people providing the service (eg. the Government Statistical Service). Second, it may be defined in terms of activities (e.g., collecting data, publishing statistics, providing statistical advice to support policy work). Third, it may be defined in terms of outputs, or products of statistical work (e.g., the published statistics on the labour market, on crime, on health etc). Source: Statistics: A Matter of Trust

30. Official statistics (Canada) “There is no standard definition among statistical agencies for the term official statistics. There is a generally accepted, but evolving, range of quality issues underlying the concept of 'fitness for use'. These elements of quality need to be considered and balanced in the design and implementation of an agency's statistical program.”

31. Official process • Official statistics go through a formal process to be created and released. Definitions of concepts are a critical aspect of the process as well as the methodologies for collecting and producing the statistics. This relates directly with the accuracy, coherence and interpretability aspects of quality mentioned by Statistics Canada. • This will tie into our discussion about the life cycle of data shortly.

32. Official process • Official statistics can be created from administrative databases, such as birth or death certificates or from national surveys, such as the Labour Force Survey, which is used to determine employment statistics.

33. Census Canadian Community Health Survey Labour Force Survey General social survey National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth Business Register Survey of Household Spending Survey of Giving, Volunteering, and Participating Participation and Activities Limitation Survey Ethnic Diversity Survey Vital Statistics Hospital Morbidity Database National Health Expenditure Database Crime reports Court reports Education reports Longitudinal Administrative Data System National Accounts LIDS (Landed Immigrant Data System) Income Statistics (Canadian Revenue Agency) Administrative Records Surveys

34. Federal official health statistics Report of the Auditor General of Canada, December 2002

35. Non-official statistics • Non-official statistics are often sold by their producers since a large number of these producers are in the business to sell specific types of statistical information. Many of the statistics associated with managing businesses fall within this category. This narrows the access for these kinds of statistics. • As a rule of thumb, non-official statistics are more difficult to find and access because of their commercial nature.

36. Search strategies for statistics • The government publications approach: to identify an agency that would produce such a statistic. This approach relies on knowledge of governmental structure and the content for which agencies are responsible. • The data approach: to identify a data source from which the statistics could be produced. The approach replies on knowledge of data sources gathered by agencies.

37. Is this likely an official or non-official statistic? What agency would produce such a statistic? Does the mandate or goals of the agency include the scope of the content? Who are the members of the agency, if the agency is a membership organization? What jurisdiction is responsible for this content? What publication titles are related to this content? What is the availability of statistics from this agency? Gov publications approach

38. What data source would be used to produce such a statistic? Who would collect such data? Would the source be in the realm of official or non-official statistics? What unit of observation would be needed to produce such statistics? What would the structure of the table look like given time, geography and attributes of the unit of observation? Use the literature trail and its indexes (official vs. non-official publications) Data approach

39. Gov publications approach What agency would produce such a statistic? Does the mandate or goals include the scope of content? Who are the members of the agency, if the agency is a membership organization? What jurisdiction responsible for this content? Is this likely an official or non-official statistic? What publication titles are related to this content? What is the availability of statistics from the agency Data approach What data source would be used to produce such a statistic? Who would collect such data? What unit of observation would be needed to produce such a statistics? What would the structure of the table look like given time, geography and attributes of the unit of observation? Would the source be in the realm of official or non-official statistics? Use the literature trail and its indexes (non-official vs. official publications) Summary of strategies

40. Understanding the data approach • A life cycle model of data provides a useful framework to understand the context in which statistics are produced,. This model describes the various stages through which data are produced and statistics derived. • Each stage generates its own information or documentation in the production of data and statistics. This information can be very important in the search for statistics.

41. 1 2 9 3 8 Access to Information 4 7 5 6 The life cycle of data

42. 1 2 9 3 8 Preserving Information 4 7 5 6 The life cycle of data

43. 1 2 9 3 8 4 7 5 6 Life cycle applied to health statistics Health Information Roadmap Initiative

44. 1 2 9 3 8 4 7 5 6 Life cycle applied to health statistics Health Information Roadmap Initiative

45. Numeric Chart of numeric information Okay, we determined that our patron wants data. What next?

46. Numeric Chart of numeric information An informed referral is appropriate at this point. See the slide at the end of this presentation.

47. Aggregate data and microdata • Aggregate data • statistics organized in databases or as data files. • tabulations structured by time, geography, and social content (tables treated as data). • Microdata • raw data organized in a file where the records or lines represent the information belonging to elements of the unit of observation. • requires some form of processing or analysis to be used.

48. Search for data • Access to data is typically regulated through licenses. As a result, online access to data is almost always moderated. Consequently, data sources on the Web will be found through distributors who set the terms of use in their licenses. • The University has consortial access with several key distributors, including Statistics Canada, the ICPSR and the Roper Institute.

49. Metadata for statistical tables • Unlike our bibliographic/full-text databases containing indexes for searching fields related to published literature, statistical tables do not have databases with rich metadata. • There are two databases of statistical tables but their indexes are built around elements you find in bibliographic databases: Statistical Universe and Tablebase

50. Summary • In the absence of indexed metadata describing these elements or properties of statistical tables and graphs, we search our existing databases using keywords that would appear in the ideal metadata for statistical tables if it existed. • For example, we might search for Statistics Canada because we believe that it would be the producer of the statistic for which we are searching.