Civilizations and world religions

1. Civilizations and worldreligions 1. Lecture: The framework of thesubject: phenomena and evolutionarytheory of ethnocentrism

2. F. Fukuyama: The end of historythesis „Wemaywittnessingthe end of historyassuch: that is the end point of mankind’sideologicalevolution and theuniversalization of Western liberaldemocracyasthefinalform of human government. ... SomeconflictsmayhappaninplacesintheThird World, buttheglobalconflict is over and notjustin Europe…The war of ideas is at an end also. BelieversinMarxist-Leninismmaystillexistinplaceslike Managua, Pyongyang, and Cambridge, Massachusetts, but overall liberaldemocracy has triumphed. The futurewill be devotednottogreatexhilaratingstruggles over ideasbutrathertoresolvingmundaneeconomic and technicalproblems. Itwillall be rather boring.” F. Fukuyama

3. S. Huntington: The clash of civilizationthesis „There are two important theme of the future: First, the crucial impact of population growth on instability and balance of power. The second, clashes of civilizations are the greatest threats to world peace, and an international order based on civilizations is the safeguard against world war. The civilizations will have to learn to live side by side in peaceful interexchange, learning from each other’s history and ideals, and art and culture , mutually enriching each other’s lives. The alternative , in this overcrowed little world is, misunderstanding, tension, clash, and catastrophe.”

4. What gives the particular importance of these topics? First of all, we should raise three basic questions and find the proper answers to them: 1st question: what makes our world move? 2nd question: what or who are the subjects of the development? 3rd question: should one expect a radical or profound change in all of this? In this context the collective identity and the changes of collective identity in the history has a special importance. These questions could be analysed from several points of view: • What is a territorial or regional organisation (state, nation) like? • What is a spiritual (ideological) organisation (e.g. a religion) like? • What is a social organisation on the basis of a „life-programme” (culture, values)?

5. The general framework-modell of the lectures Nations, states and communities Spiritual communities Civilizations Religions Ethnocentrism Territorial organizations Spiritual organizations Culture Life-programme- organizations Values

6. Assessment process Obligatory literature: „Civilizations and world-religions” and the „History of political ideas” ppt-presentations on the web-page: www.marosan.com Recommended literature: Marosán György. (2006): Hogyan készül a történelem? Money-Plan kft The course implies an exam. There are two components of the mark: an essay and a written exam. If someone participates at least 3 lectures from the 5, and writes an acceptable essay at home, then he or she could receive a mark after his or her essay, (that is: no written exam needed then). When someone does not participate enough lectures, and/or his or her essay is not acceptable or is not good enough, then he or she must make a written exam too. The topic/theme of the essay must be in a connection with the subject matter of the course, and it should be an analysis of a definite, designed topic, or movie. The essay must be of 2600 words long, the dead-line is: 17. december, 2012.

7. Topics and treatments of essays Everybody should write two essays: one from „Civilizations and World-religions” and another from „History of Political Ideas”. The topic of the first essay: one should watch a film, (which is set in the case of each student individually), then write an essay concerning the topic or theme of the movie, (perhaps a recommendation of 20 lines at the end of the essay). The topic of the second essay: the decisive events of 21st century on the basis of articles and news downloaded from the internet. The student must choose 5 news, events or articles, and write an essay on its ground. Both essays should be unbiassed, objective, multisided.

8. Movie-titles.Possible themes for essay • Ütközések (USA) • Hullám (N) • Ajami (Izraeli film) – • BaderMeinhoff csoport (N) • Eper és vér (USA) • Michael Collins (USA) • Aki szelet vet (USA) • Az Én 20. századom (M) • Az összeesküvés (Wansee-i konferencia (USA) • Megfoghatatlan. (Il Divó) Andreotti film (O) • Bukás (N) • A kelet, az kelet. (A) • Lövés utána csend. (N) • Hotel Ruanda. (USA) • Milk (homoszexuális politikusról) (USA) • Hideg napok (M) • Jó éjszakát, jó szerencsét. (USA) • Vera Drake (A – abortusz) • Más ember élete (N) • Szerelem (F – euthanazia) • Mefisztó (Szabó István) • Az elnök emberei (USA) (Watergate ügy) • 141 perc a Befejezetlen mondatból. (M –Déri könyv) • 20 óra – Sánta Ferenc film • Márvány ember (L) • A nemzet színe-java. (USA) • Z, avagy egy politikai gyilkosság anatómiája (Francia- görög?) • Ítélet Nürnbergben (A) • Karmester (Szabó István) • Luther (N) • Makk Károly: Szerelem, • McCharty korszakról szóló film: • Hamisító (N vagy A) • Hamu és gyémánt (L) • A tanú (magyar) • Cséplő Gyuri (Schiffer P. ) • Ámen (A helytartó - Hochut darab) • A csendes amerikai (angol?) • A háborúnak vége (F) Semprun könyvből film • Agitátorok (az Optimistákból) • Tarkovszkij: A tükör • Mészáros Márta: Napló gyermekeimnek • Előttem az élet (Olasz – új)

9. The points of view of the analysis of the film: What is the movie about? What is its relationship to the particular, chosen topic (to Religions or History of Political Ideas) What is the „message” of the movie? What is its peculiar importance in relationship to the history of 20th and 21st century? Does it have a „message” in regard of nowadays Hungary? Which opposite opinions are expressed in the movie? Which opposite opinions are present according to the topic in question in the contemporary Hungarian and/or global society? You could select the behavior, story or path of life of one or more characters, and you could present and analyse them in your essay. With what other movies and literary works could you compare the actual, chosen movie? What is the relationship of this film to the reality: does it alter the latter drastically or rather mirrors it in a quite acceptable, adequate way?

10. The points of view of the analysis concerning the 21st century You should choose and download from the internet 5 events, news, information in the last two years, which you consider to be decisive in regard of the history of 21st century. You should show and argue for why do you think these events to be decisive (rather than others). You should unfold their connections and internal relationship, and form your opinion what kind of future they foreshadow together. You should determine the possible message of this foreshadowed picture in regard of Europe, and in particular in regard of East-Europe. You should determine the possible message of this foreshadowed picture in regard of present Hungarian society. The essay must be approximately 8 pages, out of which one page should be about the analysis of these five tendencies. Deadline: 17. December, 2012. Room, E II 22.

11. An example At least 45 people, including women and children, have been killed in sectarian violence involving two ethnic groups over land row in Nigeria's northern state of Benue, police and witnesses said today. Those killed belong to Tiv ethnic group while the attackers were the Fulani people who are mostly cattle herdsmen, witnesses said.The Tiv, who are mostly farmers, also had some of their houses burnt down by the invaders. Ejike Alaribe, the police spokesman, said the number of people killed in Sunday's violence is 16 but a witness who spoke to PTI on condition of anonymity insisted the number could not be less than 45, adding that the country's police is known for reducing casualty figures.The cause of the violence is related to land row between the two ethnic groups. The Fulanis, who are mostly Muslims, seek land for their cattle to graze while the Tivs want to preserve it for farming.Ethnic conflict over land are widespread in northern Nigeria. Most frequently, these occure in the country's north-central state of Plateau where Fulani herdsmen engage in clashes with the Biroms and other ethnic groups.

12. Traditional approach of group behavior The traditional approach conceives group behavior as stemming from individual goals, motives and abilities. These assume that people work together with others because their insights, efforts or resources can help achieve attractive goals. People help each other because this indirectly benefits themselves, because of genetic overlap in families or because of ethnic and cultural similarities. The traditional approach focuses on individual-level disposition or concerns to explain group behavior is found across different disciplines.

13. Social identity approach of group behavior 1970’ H. Tajfel and J. Turner offer a new approach to understand group behavior: social identity approach. Social identity approach try to understand social discrimination, aggression and conflict between different groups in society based on specific cognitive processes and social cognitions which is based on existence of a group self. The group self (instead of the individual self) can guide people’s behaviors when they realize they are part of group (cognitive self-definition) or what they are subjectively committed to the group (emotional self-involvement). Anyone can be considered as part of a number of different groups. These include groups people are born into (defined by gender, ethnicity, or nationality) as well as self-chosen affiliations for instance professional, religious or political groups.

14. What does collective identity means? • Ethnocentric-syndrome: wetrust „our” groupwithoutdoubts, hesitation and unconditionally, andwearesuspiciousanddistrustfulinthedirection of „other” groups, inthedirectionofthe „alien”. • Collectiveidentity: it is integratedintoour mind thatweidentifyourselveswithourcommunities. Weconceivealltheharms, threats and insultsagainstourcommunityasharms, threatsandinsultsagainstourselves. • The centre of identity: oneformofidentityemergesfromalltheotherpossibleidentities, and itgovernsanddeterminestheroleandfunction of everyother.

15. Definition of ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism: „Loyalty to the group, sacrifice for it, hatred and contempt for outsiders, brotherhood within, warlikeness without”, „Ethnocentrism is the technical name for this view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated”, (Sumner, Folkways [1906], 2007:13). It is the special emotional attitude, that though we smile at everybody when we are born, when we are „wide awake” we get to know that there are people whom we could trust, and there are other people whom we must be afraid of. When we grow up we learn to separate the world into two sharply different parts: familiars, friends and acquaintances, whom we love and trust, and unacquainted, unfamiliar, alien people, whom we fear, and whom we should rather avoid.

16. Why ethnocentrism is important? The political processes are basically determined by the relationship to „alien” people. In this respect the changing of rejection of „foreigners” and „aliens” in Hungary is an important factor.

17. Results of the Derex (Demand for Right-Wing Extremism Index) report (2012) Degree of „demand” towards far-right extremist ideas DEREX Cathegories Dimensions Prejudicialness Anti-system attitude Value-orientation Fear Value-judgment General disposition Hungary (Jobbik) 29 (11) 64 (48) 34 (20) 43 (32) 27 (19) 32 (16) 13 (7) Netherlands (Partij voor ) 5 (1) 45 (16) 13 (5) 24 (10) 5 (3) 14 (3) 3 (1) France (Front Na) 21 (6) 58 (21) 35 (20) 42 (15) 19 (14) 28 (6) 9 (7) Belgium (Vlaams Belang 16 (3) 44 (24) 32 (13) 40 (10) 12 (7) 20 (4) 4 (2) Denmark(Dansk Folkeparti) 2 (1) 38 (13) 13 (4) 21 (12) 3 (3) 9 (3) 1 (1)

18. The general picture In Hungary (Autumn, 2010) the 48 percent of 16 years and above old population is extremely prejudicious, 20 percent of them has an anti-system attitude, 32 percent has a strong rightist value-orientation, and 19 percent could be characterized with strong fear, untrust or pessimism. In the Autumn of 2010 the attitude-extremists (those whom could be characterized with at least three features out of the four above-mentioned characteristics) made up the 11 percent of the population. This is a significant decrease in relation to the 21 percent which was registered in 2009, but its basic reason is spectacular fallback of fear, anti-system attitude and pessimism after the elections. In the moment of gathering and registration of these date the support of the FIDESZ-Party and government was on its meridian, and the vast majority of the voters was satisfied with the public affairs. Since then the general unsatisfaction and anti-institute attitude went back to its earlier, very high level. Hungary, in comparison with other 18 examined European countries, is at the head of the list in regard of prejudiciousness, right-wing value-orientation, but the fear- and untrust-index is relatively high as well.

19. The experimental analysis and demonstration of ethnocentric-syndrome • The Hamilton-law (the degree of altruism of sociable animals is in a direct proportion to the degree of relationship/closeness of genetic connection). • Henri Tajfel-law – the minimal inter-group situation (to what do we „switch on”?) • M. Shariff – experiment with the boy scout groups (how could you generate conflicts between different groups?) • The parochial-altruism experiment (how does ethnocentrism emerge?) • Axelrod – the „fitness-increasing” role of ethnocentric-syndrome (is ethnocentrism useful?) • Instinctive ethnocentrism (racism) in the well-developed, modern societies.

20. Origin of ethnocentrism:1. The Hamilton-law Hamilton-law (1963 „The Evolution of AltruisticBehavior” ): r х a > c The basis of this formula is thatinregard of relationshipsitconsiderstheirexpensesaswellastheirbenefits. Concretely, the formula connects: • thefactormarkedwith rwhichreferstotheimmediacy (closeness) of geneticrelationship, • thea benefitwhichderivesfrom an altruisticrelationship, • and contrastswithitthec expense of thealtruisticbehavior. The formula showsthelogicalresultthatif a being experiencesthatthebenefitwhichappearsattherelatives (which is theproduct of amountofhelp and thecloseness of degreeofrelationship – whichlatterreferstothegeneticcloseness) is greaterthantheexpensewhichitcausestoitself, thenitis „expedient” tobehavein an altruisticway, ifthe main goal is thetransmission of the „own” genes. The evolutionhelpstherealization of thisprocesswithdifferentmechanisms: individual and social/collectivelearning, hormone-system, etc.

21. The realization of Hamilton-law in the human world • We are apt to support our relatives – and precisely according to the degree of relationship – (with money, help, time, and we are apt to give even our own organs more willingly than in other cases), and we first of all appeal to them for help. On the other hand this is why the defense of relatives is so serious and strong: partly this is the origin of vendetta, almost in a necessary way. • And inversely: on the one hand the farthest the relationship – the biological connection – the greater is the possibility of violence (real and adopted child), and for this very reason we condemn more seriously and sharply the violence amongst close relatives (e.g. the „matricide”).

22. The origin of ethnocentrism: 2. Tajfel – the minimal group-effect experiment In the experiment one had to make his or her opinion about the pictures of two painters – Klee and Kandinsky. The leader of experiment divided the participants into two groups, then the participants could reward with money the others, whom were partly the members of the same group and partly the members of the other. The researchers examined the strategy according to which the people shared the money: maximal common benefit, the maximalization of own group, and the maximalization of difference between the two groups, or „honest (fifty-fifty) decision”. The decisive strategy of decisions: the maximalization of benefit of own group. The consequence: even the accidental, and from the real life completely separate factor could be a form-generating force, and in that way that it even influences the important decisions, the distribution of resources.

23. The origin of ethnocentrism: 3. M. Sharif: RobbersCaveexperiment 1949-1954 summer boy scout camps, with 10-12 year old participants, forming accidental groups. The leaders of experiment let the groups to be formed, then they „programmed” conflicts into their relation. „The battle began between the two groups, and none of their members actually knew how it began, but they were sure, that a member of the other group started it”. The sign of group-identity: „We” are the brave, strong, honest ones. „They” are the cowards, bastards, liars. In the competition they took it for granted that they use even dishonest, unfair means, and desecrate, violate the symbols of the other group. The reconcilement could not be realized by attempts of conviction or persuasion (collective worship), only (1) a common enemy (a sport-group that came form another camp), or (2) a common, collective work (the compulsion of a common problem that could be solved only in cooperation with the other, rival group) could decrease the hostility between those groups.

24. Origin of ethnocentrism: 4. The altruistic „punishment-games” Gamesbasedongame-theory: Prisoner’s Dilemma, dictator-game, ultimatum-game, commongoods-game. The leaders of experimentintroduceinthe game thepossibility of immediatepunishment: theygrantthepossibilityfortheplayers, forus, thatifwejudgesomeone’sbehaviorinappropriatethenwecouldpunishthepersoninquestiononourownexpense. This sort of penaltyorpunishmentwascalled „altruistic-punishment”, because: • It is executedatthepunisher’sowncost/expense. • The punisherdoesnotgainanyimmediate „benefit” forit. • Itmakesharmtothe „target”. Thispossibilitywasappliedintheexperimentsintwoways: • The participants „personinquestion” couldeitheraccomplishthepunishmentinthe end of the game • Ortheyassigned a particular „punisher”, whointhe end of the game judgedorevaluatedthebehavior, and couldpunishitattheexpense of hisorherownmoney. The hypothesiswas: rationalagentwon’tpunishattheexpense of ownmoney, unless he orshegetsomethinginreturn. Butinthereality: most menwillingly and gladlypunishedevenathisowncost, orevenbycausingharmhimselforherselfalso.

25. The origin of ethnocentrism: 5. The phenomenon of parochial altruism In the experiment the participants played the punisher DBP-game, with three roles: distributor (D), beneficiary (B) and punisher (P). The groups were formed of miscellaneous participants, of two, non-hostile, but far distant tribes (DBP, BP, DB, DP players from one tribe). The equitableness or rightfulness was acknowledged by all, the selfishness was punished by all, but the aptness to punish was strongly dependent on the composition of the group: It was higher in DBP- and BP-cases, and lower in DP- and DB-cases. All these could be explained by „parochial altruism” : in DP- and DB- cases „let his mother cry”, but in DBP- and BP-cases we must avenge the unjust behavior.

26. Origin of ethnocentrism: 6. The implicit association test • Experiment of Anthony Greenwald: word-association game: it is easier to make a connection in case of known connection than in the case of an unknown one. (E.g.: rose = sweet-smelling or ugly, snake = dangerous or pretty). • In the second step instead of rose the leader of experiment gave typical „white” and „coloured” names (George and Alonzo). The result: it was easier to associate George with the words „handsome” and „love”, and Alonzo with „devil”, „poison”. • The general trend was such: even the „blacks” tended to associate the „whites” with favorable words, and even they tended to associate unfavorable expressions to the „black” face and names. • This instinctive reaction could be of utmost importance in dangerous situations: the white patient in „shooting” experiments search information in case of white figure, but in case of a „black” one he shoots immediately. • The so-called ERP (Event-Related Brain Potential) which is the reaction in brain’s electric state to a discrete event (e.g. to a seen picture), could be detected and registered by the electrodes placed on the agents head. • The overall confirmed results of these experiments: all human beings are „instinctively” racist.

27. The origin of ethnocentrism: 7. The Axelrod-experiment: the EC is adaptive Axelrod’s simulation experiment started with such „agents” who preferred their own group and avoided interactions with „aliens”. The agents met for time to time and they played PD-game. Then they „rambled away” and/or could cooperate again, or they could isolate from the cooperation (or could generate a descendant, and they could also die). In the population the cooperation was wide-spread, but the EC-behavior also. In the end: after 2000 turns the 74 percent of the interactions was cooperative, and 76 percent was EC-behavior. Up to this moment however the „miscellaneous” – „multicultural” - community disintegrated, and one-coloured, ethnically homogenous communities were born. These ones interacted intensively, but they avoid interaction and communication with the others.

28. Symptomes of EC-phenomenon • The EC has some genetically inherited elements, which function in a similar way like in our animal ancestors, but it also has some socially learned elements. • A part of EC could be in connection with concrete experiences of life, but it also could occur in absence of experiences and concrete knowledge. • The EC works often as a reflex-operation, but very often it is realized through a serious deliberation. • The EC is a general human phenomenon, which occur in every society – independently from the degree of its development. • The EC could influenced, decreased – with addition of objective data and information – but it could not be eliminated completely. • In many occasions it lurks, it is latent, but there are certain situations in life – a menace against our own community, the competing of groups, or the frustration of the individual – which activate this program.

29. What is the reason of collective identity? • Prefiguration: The role of relational (genetic) connections in altruism (Hamilton-law). • Environmental pressure: Growing group and diversity, for this reason the strengthening, the intensifying of belonging together, of internal relations in the group, and integration of the community has an even greater importance. • Function: It increases the homogeneity, the strength of internal group-relations, pro-sociality, and it (at least for a certain degree) dissolves the conflicts in the group. • Changes: Gathering societies – one is connected with the (larger) family Settled societies – one is connected with the tribe (tribal confederations) Statehood – earlier one is connected with territory (king, kingdom, empire), then with the religion.

30. Revolutions of human evolution • Earliest stage of human evolution: it is the stage of human ethology • Modern man – EEA (Environment of evolutionary adaptedness) – and the phase of evolutionary psychology • Symbolic revolution – the cultural evolution became more important (here appears speech and language) • Neolithic revolution – here appears culture in its entire reality, and also inequality, rulership and hierarchic community • Institutional revolution – here appears state and everything else; writing and even more complex, developed conceptual thinking.

31. The levels of hierarchic controlling-system which determines the behavior 1. Earliest level of human evolution = reflex-like, „click-launch” reaction. 2. The level of emergence of modern man = he „anticipates” the solution, and acts instinctively (+ some deliberation) 3. Level of symbolic revolution = he realizes the sign, identifies its meaning or sense, and he behaves in accordance with it. 4. Level of Neolithic revolution = he is in connection with experience and with what he learnt from his ancestors, deliberates and behaves according to that. 5. Level of institutional revolution = he analyses the circumstances, applies the models of science, gathers information, deliberates prudently, and takes into account the possible consequences.

32. What does the „institutional” level means? The institutions are „tinkered” or „gadgeteered” from the earlier emerged elements of culture, they are systems with a concrete adaptive functions, which determine and form the human behavior on a very basic level. Roles, symbols and rules, made up from the material and spiritual elements of culture, systems which control the behavior. Since this point our life takes place within the frames of these institutions: state, politics, ideology, religion, domination, market etc. These systems make the environment and circumstances stable and predictable. Their functioning is based upon the earlier levels, but on the institutional level the agent makes deliberations, and takes into the account the actual and possible effects of these institutions.

33. Evolution of ethnocentrism 1. Earliest stage of human evolution: etological refusal and affinity 2. The revolution of „modern man”: emergence of ethno- centric module 3. „Symbolic revolution”: emergence of xenophobia (racism) 4. Neolithic revolution: the prejudice 5. Institutional revolution: ideology

34. The Matrioshka-model of ethnocentrism Level of ideologies Level of prejudices Level of xenophobia/homophily Level of ethnocentric-module Level of biological kinship

35. The main steps of group-identityin human evolution • Before settle: evolutionary psychological mental module. Its sign is the ending of the „smiling-phase” of the infant, the fear from unacquainted, alien people after 7-8 months. • After symbolic revolution: the fear and the identification is raised by symbols, which we transmit partly orally and partly in written form (star, cross, song, living speech, etc.). • The stereotype emerged after settling: we have to cooperate with alien people with whom we are living together, we must „classify” them in a way or another, and the rejection could change after a while. • The ideology emerged in the age of institutional revolution, as a complex institute, (symbols, roles, rules, rites, building, etc.).

36. Steps of identity in the course of human evolution On the first level the biological relatedness is decisive: kinship = biological descendance or lineage. After the symbolic revolution the kinship became socially constructed feature. In this period the communication between communities became a decisive factor. Claude Lévi-Strauss: „Civilization is exchange of items, information and spouses”. It is not the biological relationship, but the system of social relation which is truly matters. (In the Kalahari Desert „we”, ju hoansi = real human. „Aliens”, „ju dole” = bad, evil, malicious being. But the word „barbarian” in Ancient Greek language refers to quite the same: „barbarian” = „that who doesn’t understand Greek language”, „that who cannot speak intelligibly”) We must support our own kin, and we have a good reason to expect the same support from our own kin, and we must reject the alien people, and avoid them. We try to dehumanize the enemy. (E.g. in American prisons the violence amongst the prisoners is mentioned with the following slang expression: NHI, that is: No human involved).

37. Steps of identity towards the multi-cultural form of identity • Blood-brother/sister – the closest family • Foster-brother/sister – extended family, the clan • „Tribe”-brother – tribal federations • „Brethren”, co-religionist – religion (state) • „Nation”-brother – nation (state) • Class-brother – class • „All men become brothers” - mankind

38. The precedent indications and „preparatory” functions of religion on the level of animals • Culture • Tool-using and tool-making • „Politics” • Exchange of needs and activities • Following rules and norms • Pro-sociability. • Prosocial behavior: or "voluntary behavior intended to benefit another", consists of actions which "benefit other people or society as a whole", "such as helping, sharing, donating, co-operating, and volunteering." In short: a sort of altruism. • These functions could be found in a preliminary form on the level of „higher primates”.

39. The mental modules in evolutionary psychology • „Modularity of mind” is the notion that a mind may, at least in part, be composed of separate innate structures which have established evolutionarily developed functional purposes. • In evolutionary psychology, amongst others, Leda Cosmides treated the problem of modularity of mind. • This perspective suggests that modules are units of mental processing that evolved in response to selection pressures. On this view, much modern human psychological activity is rooted in adaptations that occurred earlier in human evolution, when natural selection was forming the modern human species. • Source: Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J. (1994). Origins of Domain Specificity: The Evolution of Functional Organization. In L.A. Hirschfeld and S.A. Gelmen, eds., Mapping the Mind: Domain Specificity in Cognition and Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

40. What does the mental modules-level mean? • 1. They are certain forms of behavior, which were called into existence by problems and challenges given the evolutionary adaptive environment of early periods of evolution of man. • 2. They are functional units which fixed in the brain, and which provide certain sorts of solution to certain problems of adaptation. They are „tools” or „instruments” of the solution. • 3. We decide with the instinctive, unconscious application of these mental modules, who could we trust, who could be a cheater, what should we eat, from what should be afraid of. • 4. Its a psychological attitude, a preference that influences the behavior, and which „presses” the individual towards a certain direction, and generates definite answers to certain situations from time to time.

41. Evoloutionary interpretation of most of the social phenomena We could interpret most of the social phenomena in an evolutionary way, whose inner core is genetically programmed, and whose outer layers are a kind of superstructure. The ethnocentrism: identity-forming elements each based upon the other, The religion: layers of spiritual constructions, The ethics: layers of „good-evil” generating constructions, The state: layers of territorial controlling, Politics: layers of mechanisms of collective decision-making, Governance: layers of mastership, rulership and calling to account, Internal organizations: layers of evolutionary programmed autonomous unites (firms, companies, organizations), Science: layers of cognitive, cognizing, information-collecting, testing and transmissive mechanisms.

42. Basic concepts of evolution • What do we call „evolution”? • Evolution on the „micro”-level: the change of the genetical composition of a population on account of the selective pressure of environment. • Evolution on the „macro”-level: the evolvement of present forms of life, during over millions of year, from the most primitive forms of life. • Every functional unit in a living creature is either an adaptation, or a by-product or a „bug”. • Every and any adaptation exists only in relationship of other adaptations, and never in isolation, separated from them. We could understand and interpret an adaptation only in the context of other adaptations.

43. The concept of adaptation • The fundamental characteristics of adaptation: • It is brought forth by evolutionary, selective pressure; it is an answer to adaptive problems. • It increases the sufficiency of a living being immediately. • It offers instrumental, „tool-like” solutions to actual evolutionary problems. • The process of evolution: evolutionary pressure  gadgeteering  selection  adaptation

44. Basic features of adaptation • What is adaptation in general? • 1.Adaptation is not a process, but a tool or instrument to solve a problem. • 2. The living beings and societies are always forced to face different problems during their history, and they „evolve” different „construction-type” solutions. • 3. In the natural world these tools (constructions) are organs and types (or patterns) of behavior. • 4. In the human world these tools (constructions) are institutes, techniques and ideas. • 5. The evolving or development of these tools happens in way of „gadgeteering”:the nature could work with the „material”, which is already made, the tools „present at hand”. It attaches something to those tools, alters them a little bit in a way or another; it (the nature) changes the tools which are present in such a way that they could be used in the present situation, and they could be alters further in the future, if it is needed.

45. The „Matrioshka” model of man Level of institutions Level of cultural universals Level of symbols Level of mental modules Level of human ethology Three further levels inside human ethology: 1. primate brain, 2. mammal brain, and 3. reptile brain.

46. MacLean, P. D. (1990): The „three-brain”-model Second floor: primate-brain First floor: mammal-brain Ground-floor: reptile-brain