Habituation in Spirostomum ambiguum

1. Habituation in Spirostomum ambiguum • Habituation: A response decrement to repetitive stimulation • Spirostomum is a ciliated protozoa

2. Habituation in Spirostomum ambiguum • Are multiple cells required for learning • Chemical bases of learning

3. Habituation in Spirostomum ambiguum • Place individuals on a slide • Tap slide with a mechanical stimulus each 4 seconds • Animal shows a response decrement (habituation) after 12 to 15 stimuli • Other studies show that Spirostomum can remember for a least 10 minutes

4. Ivan Pavlov • A Russian physiologist • Discovered the conditioned reflex by chance

5. E. B. Twitmyer • A Beauty Never to See Flower • A discoverer of the conditioned reflex

6. Pavlov’s Basic Procedure • Present the CS without the US-The UR is observed • Pair the CS with the US for a number of trials • The CR is observed just prior to the US onset

7. Stages Of Pavlovian Conditioning

8. Mower’s Bell and Pad Pavlovian procedure used to treat enuresis

9. Taste Aversion Pavlovian procedure causes people to avoid certain foods

10. E. L. Thorndike’s Puzzle Box Law of Effect

11. B. F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning • My introduction to B.F. Skinner • Skinner and society

12. Operant Conditioning

13. Four Critical Definitions Positive Reinforcement-The application of a stimulus that increases the probability of the response it follows. Negative Reinforcement-The withdrawal of a stimulus that increases the probability of the response it follows. Punishment-Reinforcement-The application of a stimulus that decreases the probability of the response it follows. Extinction-The withdrawal of a stimulus that decreases the probability of the response it follows.

14. Some Negative Side Effects Of Punishment • Person who is punished avoids the punisher. • Punishment may model inappropriate aggressive behavior. • Punishment can reduce self-esteem. • Punishment teaches you what not to do but not what to do. • Punishment teaches people to do the minimum. • The use of aversive stimuli are hard to control.

15. Abu Graib

16. Schedules of Reinforcement

17. Caswell Center Caswell Center

18. A New Orleans Story

19. Goal Of Behavior Therapy And A Few Definitions Goal: To provide the individual with better control over themselves or their environment. Baseline: Behavior prior to intervention. Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior. Prompt: A stimulus used to increase the probability of a correct response. Fading: Gradual removal of a prompt. Chaining: Reinforcing the last behavior in the sequence, the next to last behavior, etc.

20. Four Types Of Prompts Physical Assistance: Moving an individual through the desired responses. Modeling: Imitating the desired behavior. Pointing: Designating a location. Verbal Instruction: Describing how to perform a particular behavior.

21. Goal of Behavior Therapy To give the individuals increased control over their lives and/or environment.

22. Mary Cover Jones: Counterconditioning Greg and the empty toilet paper roll

23. What Is Automation ? Any sensing, detection, information-processing, decision-making, or control action that could be performed by humans but is actually performed by a machine” (Moray, Inagaki, & Itoh, 2000) Automation is usually viewed as a continuum, ranging from manual control to full automation.

24. Some Quotes About Technology But lo!! Men have become the tools of their tools. - Henry David Thoreau

25. Some Quotes About Technology It has become appallingly obvious that our technology has exceeded our humanity. - Albert Einstein

26. Some Quotes About Technology We live in a time when automation is ushering in a second industrial revolution. - Adlai E. Stephenson

27. Some Quotes About Technology The first rule of a technology used in a business is that automation applied to an efficient operation will magnify efficiency. The second is that automation applied to an inefficient operation will magnify inefficiency. - Bill Gates

28. Four Generations of Artificial Environments (AEs) Where we have been, where we are, and where we are going

29. First Generation Unidirectional Communication-Information moves from the machine to the person but not the person to the machine. Perform the actions necessary to accomplish the objective via automated or manual control.

30. Second Generation Bidirectional Communication-Information moves from the machine to the person and from the person to the machine. Perform the actions necessary to accomplish the objective via automated or manual control.

31. Third Generation Virtual Reality-Information moves from the machine to the person and from the person to the machine. Ideally, the synthetic environment is indistinguishable from the actual environment. Perform the actions necessary to accomplish the objective via automated or manual control.

32. Fourth Generation Life Simulation-The synthetic and actual environments are indistinguishable and the person does not know whether they are in an actual or synthetic world. Perform the actions necessary to accomplish the objective via automated or manual control.

33. Automation Usage Decisions (AUDs) AUDs: Choices in which a human operator has the option of using manual control or one or more levels of automation (LOAs) to perform a task.

34. Some AUDs Are Commonplace Checkbooks may be balanced with a calculator or by mental computation Automobiles can be set to cruise control or the driver may operate the accelerator pedal Stock purchases may be based on the output of software programs or investors may depend upon their subjective assessment of the market

35. Some AUDs Have Historic Consequences Casey Jones Pearl Harbor Three Mile Island

36. Some AUDs Have Historic Consequences USS Greenville 2000 Election

37. Types of Automation Static: Level of automation is set a the design stage Adaptive: Level of automation varies depending upon the situation

38. Optimal And Suboptimal AUDs If it is assumed that the objective is to perform a task, the optimal AUD is to employ the level of control, manual through full automation, that maximizes the likelihood of a successful outcome. A suboptimal AUD is a choice to use a level of control that does not maximize the likelihood of successfully performing a task.

39. Types of Suboptimal AUDs Misuse is over reliance, employing automation when manual control or a relatively low LOA has a greater likelihood of success Disuse is the under utilization of automation, manually performing a task that could best be done by a machine or a higher LOA.

40. Errors Resulting in Misuse and/or Disuse Recognition Errors-Operator fails to recognize that an alternative, either automated or manual, is available. Appraisal Errors-Operator inaccurately estimates the utilities of the options. Intent Errors (also called action errors)-Operator knowingly selects the alternative that does not maximize the likelihood of task success.

41. Two Images of an Operator An operator is a single minded individual whose sole object is to maximize task performance An operator‘s decision to rely on automation is based on a number of contingencies only one of which is to achieve a successful performance.

42. Intent Errors and Decision Aids: Doing It Your Way When Your Way Is Obviously Wrong

43. Decision Aids And Intent Errors Probably no area of automation has proved more problematical than the introduction of decision aids Beck, Dzindolet and Pierce contended that much of the disuse of decision aids is due to intent errors That is, operators refuse “advice” from a decision aid that they know would improve their performance

44. 200 “Training” Trials Participants viewed a series of slides on the computer screen, half of which contained a soldier in camouflage. Machine Absent: Pressed a “button” to indicate if the soldier was present or absent Machine Present: 1) Pressed a “button” to indicate if the soldier was present or absent and 2) Received the decision aid’s response

45. 100 “Test” Trials Participants viewed a series of slides on the computer screen, half of which contained a soldier in camouflage. Machine Absent: Pressed a “button” to indicate if the soldier was present or absent Machine Present: 1) Received the decision aid’s “recommendation” and 2) Pressed a “button” to indicate if the soldier was present or absent

46. Results

47. Operators In Machine Present Condition

48. Machine Present Condition: Estimated Accuracies

49. To Shoot Or Not To Shoot

50. To Shoot Or Not To Shoot Since 1900, 10% to 25% of US war fatalities in resulted from fratricide