LARM111

1. LARM111 Leereenheid 2 / Study Unit 2 Deel 2 / Part 2 Do not study for exam!!!

2. GESKIEDENIS VAN WERK / HISTORY OF WORK

3. Jag en versamelgemeenskappe / hunting and gathering societies Jagters en versamelaars het nie werk gesien as aparte sfere van die lewe nie / hunters and gatherers did not experience work as a seperate sphere of life Hulle het elke dag uitgegaan om kos te soek sodat hul kan oorleef / they gathered food each day to survive Mense het nie hard gewerk nie, want daar was nie ‘n nut om te veel goedere te versamel nie, want hulle kon dit nie berg nie / people did not work hard because there was no point in creating a surplus Werk, plesier en sosiale interaksie wat vir hulle maar ‘n geïntegreerde vloei van aktiwiteite / work, leisure, and socialisation formed an integrated flow of activities

4. Jag en versamelgemeenskappe / hunting and gathering societies • Groep / Band: • ‘n Jag en versamelgroep het bestaanuit 15 tot 20 lede / a hunting and gathering band consisted of 15 to 20 members • Tegnologie was eenvoudig / technology was simple • Die belangrikstetegnologiewatgebruik was was die verskeidenheidvaardighedewaaroorelke lid van die groepbeskik het / the most important elements of technology were the various skills possessed by each member of the band

5. Jag en versamelgemeenskappe / hunting and gathering societies • Die geslagsverdeling van arbeid / the gender division of labour: • Vrouens het wortels, bessies en klein diere versamel / women gathered roots, berries and small animals • Mans verantwoordelik vir die jag van groot wilde diere / men were responsible for large-game hunting

6. Jag en versamelgemeenskappe / hunting and gathering societies • Deel / sharing: • Die kos is gelykop verdeel tussen alle lede van die garoep / all members shared equally in the food secured from the environment • geen sosiale klasse was ontwikkel / distinct social classes were not developed • Motivering / motivation to work: • Mense was gemotiveerd om te werk om te kan oorleef / people were motivated to work in order to survive

7. Vroeëlandbougemeenskappe / early agricultural societies • Die ontwikkeling van landbou het begin by mensewatwildesaadsooskoring en mielies begin plant het / the development of agriculture started with the harvesting of wild grains, such as wheat and corn • Eerste surplus / first surplus: • ‘n Surplus kos word geproduseer / a surplus of food was produced • Boeremaakstaat op hulboerderyomhul die helejaar lank teonderhou / they depended on the land they farmed to produce a surplus that would sustain them throughout the year

8. Vroeëlandbougemeenskappe / early agricultural societies • Plunder en oorlog / Plunder and warfare: • Met die opbou van surplusse was daar ‘n moontlikheiddatlandegeplunderkon word deurgroepe van buite / with the accumulation of surplus also came the possibility of plunder by outside groups • Omdat mans die verantwoordelikheidviroorlogaangeneem het, het hulrol in die gemeenskapbelangriker en magtigergeword / because men assumed the principal responsibility of warfare, their role in society grew in importance and power

9. Vroeëlandbougemeenskappe / early agricultural societies • Geboorte van spesialisasie / birth of specialisation: • Verbeteringe in landboutegnologie het toegelaatdatmeer en meermenselandbouverlaat / improvements in agricultural technology gradually allowed more and more people to leave agricultural work • Hierdieverbeteringsluit in onderanderebesproeïng en die gebruik van kompos / these improvements included for instance irrigation and use of fertilisers

10. Keiserlikegemeenskappe / Imperial societies • Onderdrukking van kleiner en swakkerlandbougemeenskappedeurgroter en meermilitaristiesegemeenskappe en die verkryging van kos, goedere en slawe as huldeblyk / subjugation of smaller and weaker agricultural societies by bigger militaristic societies and the extraction of food, goods, and slaves as tribute • Laerklasmense het ‘n deel van hulleopbrengsafgestaan as belastingomleiers, priesters en soldatetevoed, of hullemoeswerk as slawe / peasants had given up a portion of their crops as tax to feed the rulers, priests and warriors, or they were forced to work as slaves

11. Keiserlikegemeenskappe / Imperial societies • Slawe en gratis arbeid / slave and free labour: • Meer as twee derdes van handewerk in die keiserryk is gedoendeurslawearbeid / almost two-thirds of craft work in the classical empires was done by slave labour • As gevolg van die vryelikebeskikbaarheid van slawearbeid was daar min tegnologieseverbeteringegedurendehierdietydperk/ because of the ready availability of slave labour, few technological advances occurred during this period • Slawe het nie die motivering of geleentheidgehadominnoverend by die werkteweesnie / slaves possessed neither the opportunity nor the motivation to be innovative at work • In Rome, het hierdieambagsmanne (watvernietgewerk het) unies begin vormomhultebeskerm en omreligieuse en sosialediensteaanhulledeteverskaf / in Rome, free craft workers eventually formed guilds to regulate the standards of their trade and provide religious and social services for their members

12. Keiserlikegemeenskappe / Imperial societies • Die einde van tradionelegemeenskappe/ end of classical civilisation: • Daar is niemeergeboerdeuronafhanklikeboerewatdeel was van landbougemeenskappenie of deurslawewatgewerk het op groothoewesnie/ agricultural work was no longer undertaken by independent cultivators who were members of agricultural societies or by slaves labouring in large holdings • Boere en boerdery is beheerdeurplaaslikegrondeienaars / agriculture was ruled by local landlords

13. Feodalegemeenskap / feudal society Dit was eintlik net ‘n uitbreiding van landbougemeenskape / was simply an extension of agricultural society Die meeste mense het nogsteeds die lande bewerk op dieselfde tradisionele maniere, maar die manier hoe die landbou surplus opgedeel was het verander / the majority people still tilled the land in the same traditional ways however, the way in which agricultural surplus was extracted changed In die feodale gemeenskap het grondeienaars ‘n deel van die oes as surplus gevat asook surplus in die vorm van geforseerde arbeid op die grondeienaars se land / in feudal society landlords extracted surplus both as a share of the peasants’ crops and in the form of forced labour on the landlords’ land

14. Feodalegemeenskap / feudal society • Uitersteongelykheid / extreme inequality: • Verbeterdetegnologiebreiproduktiwiteit in landbouuit / improvements in technology expanded agricultural productivity • Hierdieontwikkelinge lei tot ‘n geleidelikegroei van die populasie, maarnogsteeds word niksgedoenom die leefwyse van die boereteverbeternie / these developments resulted in a gradual growth of population, but they did little to improve the life of the peasant • Slawernyverdwyngedurendehierdietydperk / slave labour disappeared during this period

15. Feodalegemeenskap / feudal society • Ambagsmanne en unies / artisans and guilds: • Ambagsmanne was die seuns en dogters van die laerklasmensewatontsnap het van die plattelandseslawerny van hulouers en verhuis het na die dorp / artisans were the sons and daughters of the peasants who had escaped the rural servitude of their parents and had moved to town • Die werk van ambagsmannesluit in bak, weef en brei van leer / the trades of artisans included baking, weaving, and leather working • Ambagsmannevormookhuleieuniesomomtesiennahulbelange / artisans also formed guilds for their mutual benefit • Uniesreguleer the kwaliteit van produkte, aanvaarbareure van werk, en selfspryse / these guilds regulated the quality of goods, acceptable hours of work, and even prices

16. Feodalegemeenskap / feudal society • ‘n Nuwevisie van werk / a new vision of work: • Slawernyverdwyn en mensehegmeerbetekenisaanwerk / slave labour disappears and work becomes meaningful • Ekonomieseuitbreiding en die einde van feodalegemeenskap / economic expansion and the end of feudal society: • Die oorskakelingvanaffeodalegemeenskapnaindustriëlegemeenskap was a.g.v. die uitbreiding van die populasie, markte en handel / the transition from feudal society to industrial society was brought about by an expansion of population, trade and markets • Sodoende is daar ‘n behoeftevirverandering van werk in organisasies / impetus for changes in the organisation of work

17. Handelaarskapitalisme / Merchant capatalism Kapitalisme het nie gegroei as ‘n manier om produksie te organiseer nie, maar as ‘n manier om handel te organiseer / capitalism grew not as a way to organise production but as a way to organise trade Voorheen het vakmanne hulle eie materiaal gekoop en dit wat hul geproduseer het verkoop uit hul eie winkels / previously craftworkers bought their own raw materials and retailed the finished goods from their own shops Handelaar-kapitaliste het hierdie netwerk rol oorgeneem want daar was kontakte wat die voltooide produkte soek / merchant capitalists now took over this networking role for they had contacts of people who wanted the finished goods

18. Handelaarskapitalisme / Merchant capatalism • Handelaars as arbeidskontrakteurs / merchants as labour contractor: • Handelaars sit die roumaterialeuitomaangewerkte word en gaanhaaldit later omverkoopte word = ‘putting-out system’ / the merchants would put out the raw material to be worked up and later collected the finished product to be sold = ‘putting-out system • Dus het vakmannesubkontrakteursgeword en is per stukwerkbetaal / thus crafworkers became subcontractors for merchants and were paid a price rate for their work

19. Handelaarskapitalisme / Merchant capatalism • Unie weerstand tot handelaar-kapitalisme / guild resistance to merchant capitalism: • Die unies het weerstand gebied teen die ‘putting-out system’ deur die implementering van wette om te reguleer hoeveel ambagsmanne en vakleerlinge een persoon in diens mag neem / die guilds resisted the putting-out system by implementing laws to regulate the number of journeymen or apprentices one person could employ

20. Handelaarskapitalisme / Merchant capatalism • Spirituele grasie en wêreldse sukses / spiritual grace and worldly success: • In die tydperk van handelaar-kapitalisme was daar verskeie teologieë wat na vore gekom het en wat gebaseer was op die denke van Martin Luther en John Calvyn / during the period of merchant capitalism new theologies were based on the thoughts of Martin Luther and John Calvin • As ‘n persoon suksesvol was in sy werk is die persoon gekies om hemel toe te gaan (die mense wat minder suksesvol is word verwerp) / if one prospers in one’s work, one is seen to be chosen to go to heaven (people who are less successful was despised because it was a sign that God has forsaken them) • Moedig mense aan om geld te spaar / encourages people to save money

21. Industriëlerevolusie / industrial revolution Groot hoeveelhede landbewoners is van die lande afgedwing en geforseer om in fabrieke te werk = industriële revolusie / forcible movement of large numbers of peasants off the land and into factories Industriële revolusie vind eerste plaas in Engeland / industrial revolution first takes places in England

22. Industriëlerevolusie / industrial revolution • Vervanging van landbou met industrie / replacing agriculture with industry: • Landbewoners is van die landeafgedwingomplektemaakvirskape / peasants were forced of the lands to make room for sheep • Hulle is vervolg as swerwerstotdathulle in fabrieke begin werk het, baiekeer as geforseerdearbeid / they were further hounded as vagabonds until they entered the early factories, often as forced labour • Deelnameaanunies was strafbaar met die dood / union membership was punishable by death

23. Industriëlerevolusie / industrial revolution • Die fabriek sisteem / the factory system: Wat het die eerste fabrieke so sleg gemaak, dat mense geweier het om daarbinne te werk? / what made the early factories so terrible that people refused to enter them except under the force of law? • Werkers was gesentraliseer om onder een dak te werk / workers were centralised under one roof in the factory system • Werkers kon nie op hul eie pas en ritme werk nie, maar volgens dit wat vir hul voorgeskryf is deur die eienaar / it forced workers to labour according to the dictates of the owners rather than according to their own pace and rhythm

24. Industriëlerevolusie / industrial revolution • Werkers moes die ure en dae werk wat vereis was deur die werkgewer/ had to work the hours and days demanded by the employers • Dus was die werksdag langer, die intensiteit van die werksdag was verhoog en daar was ‘n verlaging in die persoonlike en godsdienstige vakansies wat toegelaat is / thus longer working days, increase in the intensity of work and a decrease in personal and religious holidays allowed • Ontwikkeling van masjinerie het werk eentonig gemaak (dit het die werksdag nog langer gemaak, want die masjinerie moes soveel ure moontlik gebruik word) / development of machinery made word more repetitive (even longer working days, for the machinery had to be run as many hours as possible) • Fabrieksprodukte is vinniger gemaak en was goedkoper as die van ander handelaars / factory products were made faster and cheaper than that of other merchants

25. Industriëlerevolusie / industrial revolution • Die sentraliteit van tekstiele / the centrality of textiles: • Die industriële revolusie het in Engeland begin in die wol industrie / the industrial revolution began in England in the woollen industry • Die fokus het verskuif na katoen tekstiele / focus shifted to cotton textiles • Verskeie uitvindings het gemaak dat die tekstiel industrie vinnig gegroei het / several inventions also facilitated the rapid growth of the textile industry

26. Industriëlerevolusie / industrial revolution • ‘n Gedetailleerde verdeling van arbeid / a detailed division of labour: • Die verdeling van arbeid in kleiner en kleiner afktiwiteite maak produksie vinniger / the division of labour into finer and finer activities increases productivity • Verminder die vaardighede en betaling van die werkers wat die produkte vervaardig / Reduced the skills and lowered the wages of workers who made the products

27. Industriëlerevolusie / industrial revolution • Geforseerde arbeid / forced labour: • Die posisie van werkers het baie vinning agteruitgegaan gedurende die Industriële Revolusie / position of workers deteriorates rapidly during the Industrial Revolution • Met die bekenstelling van masjinerie het wewers se inkomste gedaal tot een tiende / earnings of a weaver fell to one tenth of what they had been before the introduction of machinery

28. Industriëlerevolusie / industrial revolution • Ingeboekte arbeider = was werkers wat gekontrakteer was om vir ‘n sekere tydperk te werk – tipies vir ongeveer 8 tot 10 jaar – vir ‘n vasgestelde bedrag of as deel van hul straf vir ‘n misdaad soos steel of swerwery / indentured labourers = workers under contract to work for a certain amount of time – typically 8 to 10 years – for a set price or as part of a crime such as petty theft or vagabondage • Slawe en ingeboekte dienaars / knegte het in fabrieke gewerk / slaves and indentured servants worked in factories • Die werkers het min regte gehad, daar was ‘n hoë sterftesyfer, hul is wreed behandel en dit het veroorsaak dat die werkers weggehardloop het om saam met die Indiane te gaan bly / few rights for workers, high mortality rates, treated with cruelty, this causes indentured workers to run away to the live with the Indians

29. Industriëlerevolusie / industrial revolution • Vrouens en kinders / women and children: • Net 33% van die werkers in die Britse tekstiel fabrieke was volwasse mans, die res was vrouens en kinders / only 33% of workers in British textile factories were adult males, thus the rest were women and children • Hulle was aangestel omdat hulle minder as mans betaal was / they were employed for it was accepted to pay them much less than men

30. Industriëlerevolusie / industrial revolution • In groot fabrieke was ‘n kwart tot een vyfde van die kinders wat daar gewerk het gestrem of permanent beseer a.g.v. Oormatige afslowery of partykeer brutale mishandeling / in huge factories about one fourth to one fifth of the children were cripples or otherwise deformed or permanently injured by excessive toil or sometimes brutal abuse • In die vroeë 1800’s het is ‘n werksdag uitgebrei van 12 na 16 uur / early 1800’s the work day was extended from 12 to 16 hours

31. Industriëlerevolusie / industrial revolution • Industriële stede / industrial cities: • Stede was net so ongesond en onaangenaam soos die fabrieke / cities were no more healthy or pleasant than the factories in which they laboured • In die1890’s het daar ‘n behoefte ontwikkel vir riool sisteme / in the 1890’s sewage systems began to catch up to the need for them • Ingewandekoors en cholera epidemies het begin uitbreek en dit het baie sterftes veroorsaak / epidemics of cholera and typhoid took an appalling toll on workers

32. Industriëlerevolusie / industrial revolution • Kook, verwarming en fabriek produksie benodig steenkool, wat veroorsaak het dat daar ‘n roet laag in die stede gelaat was / cooking, heating and factory production depended on coal, and a thick layer of soot settled over the industrial cities • Duisende mense sterf aan tuberkulose en ander respatoriese siektes / thousands die from tuberculosis and other respiratory ailments

33. Industriëlerevolusie / industrial revolution • Bekwame ambag / skilled trades: • Gesentraliseerde werk in fabrieke onder nabye toesig en masjiene wat die pas van werk bepaal veroorsaak dat die mense nie die nodige vaardighede en outonomiteit het om trots te wees op hul werk nie/ machines and centralized work in factories robbed workers of the skills and autonomy necessary to take pride in their work • Dit grief werkers en veroorsaak dat hul vervreem raak van werk / factory workers were alienated and resentful

34. Industriëlerevolusie / industrial revolution • Industriële Kapitaliste / Industrial Capitalists • Industriële kapitaliste = die nuwe klas fabriekeienaars / industrial capatalis = new class of factory owner • Nuwe fabriekseienaars skep nuwe ideologieë om hul siening van werk voor te stel / new factory owners developed new edeologies to represent their view of work • Sosiale Darwinisme = ongelykheid en ekstreme kompetisie is goed en reg vir die gemeenskap, die bekwame individue sal bo uitkom / Social Darwinism = inequality and extreme competition is just and good for society, for all the able individuals would rise to the top

35. Industriëlerevolusie / industrial revolution • Vroeë handel unies / early trade unions: • In 1824 was handel unies nie meer onwettig in Engeland nie, maar werkgewers het nogsteeds ‘n poging aangewend om hul te vernietig / in 1824 trade unions ceased to be illegal in England, but effort was still made by employers to destroy them • In 1870 is nog wette in Engeland ingestel, soos kinderarbeidswette en wette wat die werksdag beperk tot 10 ure per dag / in 1870 other legal changes occurred in England, such as the passage of child labour law and a law limiting the working day to 10 hours • In 1880 was alle kinders tot en met die ouderdom van 10 verplig om voltydse leerders te wees / in 1880 all children under the age of ten were required to be fulltime students

36. MonopolieKapitalisme / Monopoly Capitalism Industriële kapitalisme word vervang met monopolistiese kapitalisme / industrial capitalism was displaced by monopoly capitalism Die uitgebreide grootte van die organisasies het veroorsaak dat die organisasie baie mag oor kompetisie, verskaffers en verbruikers gehad het / the greatly expanded size of companies provided them with immense power over competitors, suppliers, and consumers

37. MonopolieKapitalisme / Monopoly Capitalism Ekonomiese mag was gesentraliseerd in ‘n oligopolie van ‘n paar groot organisasies in baie industrieë / economic power became centralised in an oligopoly of a few large companies in many industries Saam met oligopoliese en monopoliese mag kom daar verhoogde betrokkenheid van die staat in die produksie proses voor / along with greater oligopoly and monopoly power came an increased involvement of government in the productive process

38. MonopolieKapitalisme / Monopoly Capitalism • Groot gesentraliseerde fabrieke / Huge centralised factories: • Fabrieke het groter geword, en sommige fabrieke verskaf werk aan duisende mense / factories increased in size, sometimes employing many thousands of workers • Enkele organisasies het ook klomp verskeie fabrieke beheer/besit / single companies acquired control of multiple factories • Dit was moeilik vir die kleiner organisasies om te kompeteer teen die ander groot organisasies / smaller companies had a difficult time competing against these corporate giants

39. MonopolieKapitalisme / Monopoly Capitalism Die klein organisasies was gedwing om in areas te funksioneer wat nog nie deur die groot organisasies oorgeneem is nie, of hul het verskaffers geword van die parte en dienste aan hierdie groot organisasies / they were forced to operate in regions or product lines as yet unconquered by the large companies, or to become suppliers of parts and services to the giant corporations

40. MonopolieKapitalisme / Monopoly Capitalism Saam met die groter organisasies kom vermeerderde burokrasie voor / along with greater size and concentration of companies came increased bureaucracy Voormanne stel nie meer mense aan nie, die aanstellings word gedoen deur ‘n sentrale personeelkantoor / foremen no longer hired their work crews. Instead, a central personnel office did the hiring Gestandardiseerde praktyke beskerm die werkers teen voortrekkery deur die voormanne, maar het tot gevolg dat die werksomgewing nog meer depersonaliseer / standardised practices protect workers from some of the worst abuses and favouritism of foremen, but they also tend to depersonalise the work environment

41. MonopolieKapitalisme / Monopoly Capitalism • Massa produksie / massive production: • Die verskriklike grootte van ekonomiese organisasies aan die begin van die 20ste eeu veroorsaak dat nuwe vorms van tegnologie en nuwe maniere om werk te organiseer en werkers te beheer ontwikkel word / the immense size of economic organisations at the beginning of the twentieth century brought about the possibility of new forms of technology and new means of organising work and controlling workers • Die mees bekende ontwikkeling was die monteerband / the most notable of these was the assembly line • Die monteerband is eerste gebruik in die outomobiel industrie / the use of the assembly line occurred first in the automobile industry

42. MonopolieKapitalisme / Monopoly Capitalism • Met monteerband produksie het werk vaardighede hoogs spesifiek geraak tot die tegnologie en prosedures wat gebruik is in ‘n gegewe aanleg / with assembly line production, job skills become highly specific to the technology and procedures used in a given plant • Sulke werk word gesien as semi-vaardig omdat hulle ‘n spesifieke vaardigheid vereis / such jobs are considered semi-skilled because they require a specific skill • ‘n persoon kan hierdie vaardigheid leer in ‘n kort tydperk, meestal een tot twee weke / a person can learn this skill in a relatively short time, often one to two weeks • Monteerbande en ander vorms van gevorderde meganisasie is georganiseerd onder die beginsel van wetenskaplike bestuur / assembly lines and other forms of advanced mechanisation are organised under the principles of scientific management

43. MonopolieKapitalisme / Monopoly Capitalism • Wetenskaplike bestuur word geïdentifiseer deur Frederick Taylor / scientific management is identified with the work of Frederick Taylor • Frederick Taylor glo dat alle dinkwerk uit die sfeer van die werker gehaal moet word / Frederick Taylor believes that all thinking should be removed from the realm of the worker • Werkers was ongelukkig oor die nuwe monteerband sisteem van produksie want hul voel dat hul behandel word soos masjiene in plaas van mense / the new assembly line system of production sparked fierce resistance from workers, who felt that the new production systems treated them like automatons rather than human beings • Sodoende vermeerder die eentonigheid van werk ook / however, the monotony of work was increased

44. MonopolieKapitalisme / Monopoly Capitalism • ‘n Meer komplekse klasstruktuur / a more complex class structure: • Gemeenskap word verdeel tussen eienaars en werkers, wat nou weer verder verdeel was tussen vaardige en minder vaardige werkers / society remained strongly divided between owners and workers, who were themselves divided between skilled craft workers and less skilled workers • Daar was ‘n hergeboorte van die middel klas as gevolg van die verhoogde behoefte wat daar ontstaan het vir klerklike en middelvlak bestuurders in nuwe groot organisasies / however, there was a rebirth of the middle class as a result of a heightened need for clerical and mid-level managerial workers in the new giant companies

45. MonopolieKapitalisme / Monopoly Capitalism • Die behoefte aan professionele dienste, soos onderrig en gesondheidsorg, het ook uitgebrei as gevolg van die lewensstandaard wat verhoog het / the demand for professional services, such as education and health care, also expanded as a result of a rising standard of living

46. Postindustriëlegemeenskap / postindustrial society Die oorskakeling van massa produksie na die huidige stand van die industriële gemeenskap, word soms die postindustriële gemeenskap genoem / the transition from mass production to the present stage of industrial society, sometimes called post-industrial society Teen die 1960’s was ‘n kleiner en kleiner persentasie van die werksmag benodig om goedere te vervaardig / by the 1960’s a smaller and smaller percentage of the labour force was needed to manufacture goods sodoende het plaasproduktiwiteit verhoog / similarly, farm productivity continued to rise

47. Postindustriëlegemeenskap / postindustrial society A.g.v. daarvan brei klerklike-, diens-, en professionele diens uit / as a result, new employment growth has taken place mainly in clerical, service, and professional work Sommige van hierdie werk is belonend, ander is eentonig en vervelig nes fabriekswerk / some of these jobs are rewarding and exciting, others are as monotonous as factory work

48. Postindustriëlegemeenskap / postindustrial society • Diens industrieë / service industries: • Bv. Vervoer, groothandel, kleinhandel, finansiering, versekering, eiendom ens. / example transportation, wholesale and retail trade, finance, insurance, real estate etc. • Werke in die diens industrieë wissel baie / jobs in service industries vary greatly • Sommige is lae-vaardigheid beroepe in voedseldienste en gesondheidssorg / some are low-skill jobs in food service and health care • Hierdie posisies word grootliks gevul deur vrouens en minderheidsgroepe / these jobs are predominantly filled by women and minorities • Ander beroepe benodig hoogs vaardige professionele werkers bv. Rekenaarprogramering / other jobs entail highly skilled professional work for example computer programming

49. Postindustriëlegemeenskap / postindustrial society • Die pas waarteen nuwe vaardighede benodig word het ook verhoog as gevolg van die vinnige tegnologiese veranderinge met die gebruik van rekenaars in die werkplek / the pace at which new skills are needed has accelerated dramatically as a consequence of rapid technological changes based on the widespread use of computers in the workplace • Werkers moet heropgelei word / workers must be retrained

50. Postindustriëlegemeenskap / postindustrial society • Professionele beroepe / Professional jobs: • Die aantal hoogs vaardige professionele werkers neem toe / the number of highly skilled professional workers has also grown in post-industrial society • Professionele werkers sluit in rekenmeesters, prokureurs, dokters, en ander gesondheidsprofessionele in professionele diens industrieë, sowel as ingenieurs, aptekers, bioloë en wetenskaplikes / professional workers include accountants, lawyers, and doctors and other health professionals in professional service industries, as well as engineers, chemists, biologists, and scientists • Hul verwag hoë betaling en ‘n sekere graad van outonomiteit in besluitneming / they command relatively high wages as well as a certain degree of autonomy in decision making