Problem Solving Techniques

1. Problem Solving Techniques

2. Basic problem solving • Understand the problem • Identify solutions • Try some solutions and evaluate the results • Is the customer satisfied? No - try again, Yes - we are done.

3. Basic problem solving • Understand the problem • State the problem, clearly, unambigously and succinctly • Define the scope of the problem – be specific about what is included and what outside the scope of the problem • State how you would know if the problem has been solved • What measurements can be made to show that the problem has been solved • Who makes the judgement that the problem is solved (who is the customer for the solution) • Is the information about the problem and desired outcome complete – if not, who can provide the missing information? • Identify solutions • Try some solutions and evaluate the results • Is the customer satisfied? No - try again, Yes - we are done.

4. Basic problem solving • Understand the problem • Identify solutions • Try some solutions and evaluate the results • Trial and error • Consider special cases • Ask an expert • Solve a simpler but similar problem and then generalise • Etc (there are a number of techniques discussed later in this chart deck) • Try some solutions and evaluate the results • Is the customer satisfied? No - try again, Yes - we are done.

5. Basic problem solving • Understand the problem • Identify solutions • Try some solutions and evaluate the results • Execute the proposed solution • Does the solution meet all the success criteria in the original problem statement • Is the customer satisfied? No - try again, Yes - we are done.

6. Basic problem solving • Understand the problem • Identify solutions • Try some solutions and evaluate the results • Is the customer satisfied • Is the customer satisfied? No, try again, yes, we are done. • What worked and what did not? • Did the customer really ask for what they wanted or did they actually want something else? • How can you monitor the continued success of the solution and adjust as necessary?

7. Some common problem solving techniques ….

8. Some common problem solving techniques ….

9. Trial and Error • Trial and error means guessing a solution and then seeing if really does solve the problem • Selecting random solutions can be very inefficient – so trial and error often involves some sort of directed search of the solution space to reduce the number of guesses required. • Trial and error is can use feedback system where a possible solution is selected (often by guesswork) and then the solution is tested to see if is in fact a valid solution. By examining how close the solution is to the desired outcome, feedback can be generated to select a new possible solution that may be closer to the actual solution. • Trial and error is based on the assumption that you can learn by examining a failure, understanding why the failure occurred, making an appropriate change and then trying again. • This approach is in contrast to approaches based on using insight and theory.

10. Trial and error has a number of features: • This is a solution-oriented approach : there is no attempt to discover why a solution works, merely that it is a solution. • This is a problem-specific approach - trial and error makes no attempt to derive a general solution – so the a solution to other problems. • This is often a non-optimal approach : trial and error is generally an attempt to find a solution, not all solutions, and not the best solution. • Trial and error needs little domain knowledge: the solver of the problem need not necessarily understand the underlying details of the problem – they only need to be able to recognise a valid solution. • To find all solutions by trial and error it is necessary to exhaustively search the full solution space. This can be time consuming. • To find the best solution, there must be some way of comparing the ‘goodness’ of each solution so that an optimal solution can be determined. • Trial and error is usually a last resort for a particular problem, as the method has a number of disadvantages. It is tedious and monotonous. Also, it is very time-consuming. And you don’t learn much about the nature of the underlying problem.

11. Trial and Error - examples • The process of evolution can be regarded as a ‘trial and error’ process. Random mutations and genetic variations result in trials being run of new forms of organisms. The error measured in each trial is how good each organism is in reproducing itself. Thus after a long time 'knowledge' of well-adapted genomes accumulates simply by virtue of them being able to reproduce and the trail and error process produces improved ‘solutions’. • In computing, Bozo sort is a sorting algorithm based on random numbers. A list is to be sorted into ascending order. The algorithm examines the list and if it is not in order, it picks two items at random and swaps them, then checks to see if the list is sorted. The process is repeated until the list is in order. This is a poor implementation of trial and error as • There is no guarantee that Bozo sort will ever terminate • New trials are not directed towards a better solution than previous trials

12. Trial and Error • Trial and error is usually a last resort for a particular problem, as there are a number of problems with it. • For one, trial and error is tedious and monotonous. • Also, it is very time-consuming; chemical engineers must sift through millions of various potential chemicals before they find one that works. • Fortunately, computers are best suited for trial and error; they do not succumb to the boredom that humans do, and can potentially do thousands of trial-and-error segments in the blink of an eye.

13. Divide and conquer • A divide and conquer algorithm works by repeatedly splitting a problem into two or more sub-problems of the same (or related) type, until these become simple enough to be solved directly. The solutions to the sub-problems are then combined to give a solution to the original problem. • Knuth gives the method a post office typically uses to route mail: letters are sorted into separate bags for different geographical areas, each of these bags is itself sorted into batches for smaller sub-regions, and so on until they are delivered.This is related to a radix sort, described for punch-card sorting machines as early as 1929. • This approach is good with recursion and parallelism

14. Hill climbing • This problem solving method involves evaluation a solution is in terms of its closeness to the correct solution and then making a change to that solution and determining if the new solution is nearer the desired goal or not. • Each step change in the solution is intended to move closer to the goal situation. The problem with this approach is that many challenges require temporarily moving farther away from the goal state. For example, traveling 1,000 miles to the west might require driving a few miles east to an airport. • Hill climbing can be regarded as an improvement on ‘trial and error’ as it is really a ‘trial and improvement’ scheme. Heuristics is another term for this. Once upon a time a farmer went to market and purchased a fox, a goose, and a bag of beans. On his way home, the farmer came to the bank of a river and hired a boat. But in crossing the river by boat, the farmer could carry only himself and a single one of his purchases - the fox, the goose, or the bag of the beans. If left alone, the fox would eat the goose, and the goose would eat the beans. The farmer's challenge was to carry himself and his purchases to the far bank of the river, leaving each purchase intact. How did he do it?

15. Hill climbing – one possible solution – 9 steps Is this the optimum solution? Farmer, Fox, Goose, Beans RIVER Goose, Beans Farmer, Fox Farmer, Goose, Beans Fox Beans Farmer, Fox, Goose, Farmer, Fox, Beans Goose Fox, Farmer, Goose, Beans Farmer, Fox, Goose, Beans Goose, Farmer, Fox, Beans Farmer, Goose, Fox Beans Farmer, Fox, Goose.Beans

16. Hill climbing – what is the optimal solution? • The first step must be to bring the goose across the river, as any other will result in the goose or the beans being eaten. When the farmer returns to the original side, he has the choice of bringing either the fox or the beans across. If he brings the fox across, he must then return to bring the beans over, resulting in the fox eating the goose. If he brings the beans across, he will need to return to get the fox, resulting in the beans being eaten. Here he has a dilemma, solved by bringing the fox (or the beans) over and bringing the goose back. Now he can bring the beans (or the fox) over, leaving the goose, and finally return to fetch the goose. • His actions in the solution are summarised in the following steps: • Bring goose over • Return • Bring fox or beans over • Bring goose back • Bring beans or fox over • Return • Bring goose over • Thus there are seven crossings, four forward and three back.

17. Hill climbing – what is the decision making process? • Sometimes making a decision to use a sub-optimal solution is a good one, other times it is not. • it is often a good idea to revisit a decision (or a discussion where agreement was not forthcoming) after sleeping on it, or a period of reflection. • Also, to avoid indecision paralysis, (where all solutions are sub-optimal, you must choose one of them, but can't for fear of choosing the wrong one), for each solution ask: • "how much effort is it to move from this solution to an other should the solution chosen to be the wrong one"?

18. Brainstorming • Brainstorming is a group creativity technique designed to generate a large number of ideas for the solution of a problem. • The method is • Identify a leader who will facilitiate the processes. • Set the problem • Select the particiapants • Create a list of supporting questions • Run the session • Evaluate the outcome • Setting the problem • It is vital to define the problem prior to starting the brainstorming activity. The problem must be clear, specific, non ambiguous and of a manageable size. It should be stated as a specific question such as "What GUI interface would be most useful to customers who want to investigate performance problems in iSCSI configurations?"

19. Brainstorming • Select participants • The brainstorming group must contain a facilliator. It might also include a scribe/secratary whose job is to write down and document suggestions or this can be done by the facilitieor • A group of 10 or fewer members is generally more productive. • The group should not necessarily be restricted to those having detailed domain knowledge about the problem. Participants from outside the project may bring a fresh set of ideas and perspectivies.· • Create a list of lead questions • During the brainstorm session the creativity may decrease. At this moment, the facilitator should stimulate creativity by suggesting a lead question to answer, such as Can we combine these ideas? or How about looking from another perspective?. It is best to prepare a list of such leads before the session begins.

20. Brainstorming – how is a session conducted? • The facilitator leads the brainstorming session and ensures that ground rules are followed. The steps in a typical session are: • A warm-up session, to expose novice participants to the criticism-free environment. A simple problem is brainstormed, for example “Where should the department Christmas Lunch be held” • The facilitator presents the problem and gives a further explanation if needed. • The facilitator asks the brainstorming group for their ideas. • If no ideas are forthcoming, the facilitator suggests a lead to encourage creativity. • All participants present their ideas, and the idea collector records them. • To ensure clarity, participants may elaborate on their ideas. • When time is up, the facilitator organizes the ideas based on the topic goal and encourages discussion. • Ideas are categorized. • The whole list is reviewed to ensure that everyone understands the ideas. • Duplicate ideas and obviously infeasible solutions are removed. • The facilitator thanks all participants and gives each a token of appreciation.

21. Brainstorming – the process • Participants who have ideas but were unable to present them are encouraged to write down the ideas and present them later. • ·The idea collector should number the ideas, so that the chairperson can use the number to encourage an idea generation goal, for example: We have 44 ideas now, let’s get it to 50!. • ·The idea collector should repeat the idea in the words he or she has written verbatim, to confirm that it expresses the meaning intended by the originator. • ·When more participants are having ideas, the one with the most associated idea should have priority. This to encourage elaboration on previous ideas. • ·During a brainstorming session, managers and other superiors may be discouraged from attending, since it may inhibit and reduce the effect of the four basic rules, especially the generation of unusual ideas.

22. Brainstorming - evaluation • Brainstorming is not just about generating ideas for others to evaluate and select. Usually the group itself will, in its final stage, evaluate the ideas and select one as the solution to the problem proposed to the group. • ·The solution should not require resources or skills the members of the group do not have or cannot acquire. • ·If acquiring additional resources or skills is necessary, that needs to be the first part of the solution. • ·There must be a way to measure progress and success.\ • ·The steps to carry out the solution must be clear to all, and amenable to being assigned to the members so that each will have an important role. · • There must be a common decision making process to enable a coordinated effort to proceed, and to reassign tasks as the project unfolds. • There should be evaluations at milestones to decide whether the group is on track toward a final solution. • There should be incentives to participation so that participants maintain their efforts.

23. Focal Objects • The technique of focal object for problem solving involves synthesizing the seemingly non-matching characteristics of different objects into something new. • Another way to think of focal objects is as a memory cue: if you're trying to find all the different ways to use a mouse, give yourself some random "objects" (situations, concepts, etc.) and see if you can find a use. Given "piano", for example, I would try to think of all the ways a mouse could be used with a piano. • Another method would be to try and find patterns in your solutions, and then break those patterns. If you keep finding ways to use a mouse with a human hand, then think of ways to use a mouse that does not involve humans – eg as a door stop. • Pattern-breaking, combined with focal object cues, can lead to very divergent solutions. ( eg: Use the mouse lead as a string to tie down a balloon)

24. Lateral thinking • Lateral thinking is a term coined by Edward de Bono. It means using an indirect and creative approach to solving roblems. Lateral thinking uses reasoning that is not immediately obvious and ideas that would not be normally associatged with traditional step-by-step logic. • The term first appeared in the title of de Bono's book New Think: The Use of Lateral Thinking, published in 1967. • What is the difference between critical and lateral thinking? • Critical thinking is primarily concerned with judging the truth value of statements and seeking errors. • Lateral thinking is more concerned with the movement value of statements and ideas. A person would use lateral thinking when they want to move from one known idea to creating new ideas.

25. Lateral thinking • When NASA began the launch of astronauts into space, they found out that the pens wouldn't work at zero gravity (Ink won't flow down to the writing surface). In order to solve this problem, they hired Andersen Consulting (Accenture today). It took them one decade and $12 million. They developed a pen that worked at zero gravity, upside down, underwater, in practically any surface including crystal and in a temperature range from below freezing to over 300 degrees C. • And what did Russians do.......................................??

26. Lateral thinking • When NASA began the launch of astronauts into space, they found out that the pens wouldn't work at zero gravity (Ink won't flow down to the writing surface). In order to solve this problem, they hired Andersen Consulting (Accenture today). It took them one decade and $12 million. They developed a pen that worked at zero gravity, upside down, underwater, in practically any surface including crystal and in a temperature range from below freezing to over 300 degrees C. • And what did Russians do.......................................?? • …..they used a pencil

27. Lateral thinking • There are four types of "thinking tools" defined in Edward de Bono's Lateral Thinking: The Power of Provocation manual:[1] • Idea generating tools that are designed to break current thinking patterns - routine patterns, the status quo • Focus tools that are designed to broaden where to search for new ideas • Harvest tools that are designed to ensure more value is received from idea generating output • Treatment tools that are designed to consider real-world constraints, resources, and support

28. Lateral thinking – Idea generating tools • Random Entry Idea Generating Tool: Choose an object at random and associate that with the area you are thinking about. • For example imagine you are thinking about how to improve the product user interface. Choosing an object at random from an office you might see an colleague using a mobile phone. Mobile phones now run complex operating systems. People use mobile phones as mobile terminals. Perhaps this could be a new way to communicate with the product.. • Provocation Idea Generating Tool: Choose to use any of the provocation techniques - wishful thinking, exaggeration, reversal, escape, or arising. Create a list of provocations and then use the most outlandish ones to move your thinking forward to new ideas.

29. Lateral thinking – Idea generating tools • Provocation Idea Generating Tool: Choose to use any of the provocation techniques - wishful thinking, exaggeration, reversal, escape. Create a list of provocations and then use the most outlandish ones to move your thinking forward to new ideas. • For example: • Apple’s Icloud is the cheapest storage virtualisation system in the world (exaggeration) • For this to be true, perhaps we could use netbooks for the nodes and make a very low cost Cloud? • Or to be really low cost, then software should be just software – what would be required to remove all hardware dependencies?

30. Lateral thinking – Idea generating tools • Challenge Idea Generating Tool: A tool which is designed to ask the question "WHY?", in a non threatening way, why something exists, why it is done the way it is. The result is a very clear understanding of WHY? which naturally leads to fresh new ideas. The goal is to be able to challenge anything at all, not just items which are problems. • For example you could challenge the windscreen wipers on motor cars. The reason for the wiper is to remove raindrops. Perhaps windsreens could be swept clean by a blast of air or perhaps the windscreen could rotate and spin the water off, or maybe windscreens could be electostitically charged to repel water?

31. Lateral thinking – Idea generating tools Concept Fan Idea Generating Tool: Ideas carry out concepts. This tool systematically expands the range and number of concepts in order to end up with a very broad range of ideas to consider. • The other focus, harvesting and treatment tools deal with the output of the generated ideas and the ways to use them. There is much more to lateral thinking and Edward de Bono has a wide range of ideas about thinking and reasoning – see his books and web site.

32. Lateral thinking Here is a famous situational puzzle. It is best solved with lateral rather than critical thinking.: A man walks into a bar, and asks the bartender for a drink of water. The bartender pulls out a gun, points it at the man, and cocks it. The man says "Thank you" and leaves. What happened? How can you solve this puzzle? The standard approach is to gather more data by asking questions: Question: Could the bartender hear him? Answer: Yes Question: Was the bartender angry for some reason? Answer: No Question: Was the gun a water pistol? Answer: No Question: Did they know each other from before? Answer: No (or: "irrelevant" since either way it does not affect the outcome) Question: Was the man's "Thank you" sarcastic? Answer: No (or with a small hint: "No, he was genuinely grateful for some reason") Question: Did the man ask for water in an offensive way? Answer: NoQuestion: Did the man ask for water in some strange way? Answer: Yes

33. Lateral thinking Eventually the questions lead up to the conclusion that the man had the hiccups, and that his reason for requesting a drink of water was not to quench his thirst but to cure his hiccups. The bartender realized this and chose instead to cure the hiccups by frightening the man with the gun. Once the man realized that his hiccups were gone, he no longer needed a drink of water, gratefully thanked the bartender, and left.

34. Lateral thinking – Thinking outside the box • The Italian historian and traveller Benzoni wrote in 1565 wrote: • "Columbus was dining with many Spanish nobles when one of them said: 'Sir Christopher, even if your lordship had not discovered the Indies, there would have been, here in Spain which is a country abundant with great men knowledgeable in cosmography and literature, one who would have started a similar adventure with the same result.' Columbus did not respond to these words but asked for a whole egg to be brought to him. He placed it on the table and said: 'My lords, I will lay a wager with any of you that you are unable to make this egg stand on its end like I will do without any kind of help or aid.' They all tried without success and when the egg returned to Columbus, he tapped it gently on the table breaking it slightly and, with this, the egg stood on its end. All those present were confounded and understood what he meant: that once the feat has been done, anyone knows how to do it."

35. Lateral thinking – thinking outside the box Another ‘outside the box’ lateral thinking puzzle: The 9 dots problem: The goal of the puzzle is to link all 9 dots using four straight lines or less, without lifting the pen.

36. Lateral thinking – thinking outside the box The solution: The puzzle is easily solved but only if you draw the lines outside of the confines of the square area defined by the nine dots themselves. Thus, the phrase "thinking outside the box" was born! 2 3 4 1

37. Lateral thinking – further reading • Edward De Bono, Lateral Thinking : Creativity Step by Step, Harper & Row, 1973, trade paperback, 300 pages, ··ISBN 0-06-090325-2 • Paul Sloane, Lateral Thinking Puzzlers, Sterling Publishing, 1991, ISBN 0806982276 • Paul Sloane, The Leader's Guide to Lateral Thinking Skills, Kogan Page, 2003, paperback, 186 pages, ISBN 0-7494-4002-3 • Paul Sloane and ··Des MacHale, Outstanding Lateral Thinking Puzzles, ··Sterling Publishing, 2005, ISBN 1402703805 • Paul Sloane and ··Des MacHale, Cunning Lateral Thinking Puzzles, ··Sterling Publishing, 2006, ISBN 1402732759 • Sandy Silverthorne, ··John Warner,One-Minute Mysteries and Brain Teasers, Harvest House Publishing, 2007, paperback, 176 pages, ISBN 0-7369-1942-2 • Lloyd King, Test Your Creative Thinking, Kogan-Page, 2003, paperback, 156 pages, ISBN 0-7494-4004-X • Lloyd King, Amazing Aha! Puzzles, Puzzle Wizard, 2004, paperback, 180 pages, ISBN 1-4116-1330-9

38. Mindmapping Mind mapping is a method of representing words, ideas, tasks in relationship to a central idea. A Mind map is a diagram that can be used to generate, visualise, classify and structure ideas as well as a means to communicate or perform problem solving and decision making. It is a useful tool when trying to perform lateral thinking. Mind maps have structure but are also relatively free form and fluid and encourage a brainstorming approach which encourages users to list and connect concepts without using preconceived frameworks or assumptions. An industry standard that implements formal rules for finalizing at least a subset of such diagrams is the Unified Modeling Language (UML). Mind maps can be created by groups, and are a useful brainstorming tool. They are good for condensing material into a concise and memorable format, and are great for showing relationships between concepts and ideas. Mind map software is available (eg Freemind at Sourceforge: http://sourceforge.net/projects/freemind/) but they can also be drawn by hand, eg during a lecture or meeting. See: Buzan, Tony. (2000). The Mind Map Book, Penguin Books, 1996. ISBN 978-0452273221

39. Mindmapping This example of a sub section of mind map shows how the technique can be used to explore the technical skills needed to be a storage product developer

40. Research • This method of problem solving looks at what is already known about and has been written by others in the hope that the problem may already be solved or solutions to similar problems may indicate how this problem may be solved • Source material • Google • Scientific and Technical Journals. IEE, IEEE, BCS • Internal wikis, bulletin boards • The coffee machine (ie your colleagues)

41. Hypothesis Testing • Experimental data can be used to support decision making (and therefore problem solving) by using a statistical hypothesis test. In statistics, a result is called statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance. • Hypothesis testing is defined by the following general procedure: • Formulate a null hypothesis. Typically this is that the observations are the result of pure chance. Formulate also an alternative hypothesis. Commonly this is that the observations show real effect combined with a component of chance variation. • Identify a test statistic that can be used to assess the truth of the null hypothesis. • Compute the P-value, which is the probability that a test statistic at least as significant as the one observed would be obtained assuming that the null hypothesis were true. The smaller the P-value, the stronger the evidence against the null hypothesis. • Compare the P-value to an acceptable significance value, alpha. . If P-value < alpha , then the observed effect is statistically significant, the null hypothesis is ruled out, and the alternative hypothesis is valid.

42. Analogy • This method compares the problem to other problems with known solutions (possibly in other fields) and determines if aspects of these solutions can help in solving this problem. • On famous example in physics is the use by Neil Bohr of an analogue of the solar system when describing an early model of the atom. Here the electrons in orbit around the nucleus were said to be analogous to the planets in orbit around the sun. • In a related technique a physical prototype can be built to model and represent some other physical object. For example, wind tunnels are used to test scale models of wings and aircraft, which act as an analog to full-size wings and aircraft. • An example in computing was the use of the flow of water in pipes in an analogue computer (MONIAC) which was used to represent the flow of money in an economy.

43. Modeling In this method a model of the problem is constructed. The behaviour of the model is then compared to reality and if the model behaves sufficiently closely to reality the model can be used to characterise and solve the problem.

44. The GROW process • GROW is more of a structured framework for achieving goals rather than a technique for intellectual problem solving. It is used commonly used in the business/corporate world. • GROW is often used by a coach to help a client change their behaviour or achieve a desired outcome.

45. The GROW process • This example deals with time management. • The clients wants: ‘To go home at 5pm every night this wek and to continue to do that in future weeks’. This is the Goal. • The GROW approach would then be to establish the Reality by stating what their current leaving time is now. The coach would then ask awareness questions to deepen understanding of what is happening when the client gets to 5pm in the evening and finds they are not ready to go home, thus identifying the Obstacles. These questions could include: • Have you been able to go home at 5pm any of the days this week – if so, what made the difference on that particular day?What is the difference between the days you are able to go home on time and days when you cannot?What would have to change for you to be sure you could go home on time every day?

46. If the client genuinely answers these questions they will discover new information about what works and does not work for them in terms of leaving time, or discover they are dependent on other peoples actions or working hours. This improved understanding can then be used to create some potential for change. • It then becomes possible to create some strategies or Options which get around the Obstacles. These could include looking at when meetings are scheduled during the day, when new code builds are delivered from development (if the client is a tester), improving automation to make test starts more reliably and quickly or even just setting new expectations with project management on what can be achieved in a normal working day. • Once the client knows the strategies that are likely to work they can establish a Way Forward which involves taking action steps. This is where they commit to what they will do in the short term to put the strategies into effect. For instance, one action might be to move the daily build start time from 3pm to 1pm, or to set a 9am meeting to determine the day's priorities, so that the high priority items can be completed in the morning/early afternoon.

47. The GROW process

48. The GROW method and the Inner Game GROW was developed out of the Inner Game theory developed by Timothy Gallwey, a tennis coach who noticed that he could often see what a player was doing wrong but simply telling them what they should be doing did not achieve lasting change. The player who does not keep their eye on the ball can be used to illustrate the method.. When observing the player most coaches would say: ‘Keep your eye on the ball’ to improve the player’s success in hitting and directing the ball. A player will be able to follow this type of instruction for a short while but often will be unable to continue to focus on it when subsequent instructions are given. So the problem is not solved in the long term. So one day, instead of giving an instruction, Gallwey asked the player to say `bounce' out loud when the ball bounced and `hit' out loud when they hit it This caused the player to keep their eye on the ball without directly thinking about it. In effect the player was playing a simple game while they were playing tennis. Gallwey saw that the most imported thing was to help the player discover for himself what worked and what needed to change. This was the birth of the Inner Game.

49. The GROW method and the Inner Game The basic methodology of GROW came out of Gallwey’s work with tennis players. Step one in this process would be to set a target which the player wanted to achieve –eg how many first serves out of ten did the player want to get in. This was Goal. The player would then serve 10 balls and see how many first serves went in. This was the Reality. Gallwey then asked "What do you notice you are doing differently when you the ball goes in or out?" From this the player discovered for themselves what they were changing about their mind and body when the serve went in or out. In this was the Obstacles and Options were defined. From this the player then learnt for themselves what they had to change in order to meet their serving targets and they had a clear Way Forward.

50. The GROW method and the Inner Game Gallwey’s work led to a number of learning principles which can be applied to any learning situation whether sport based or not. • The learner is rarely focused on what is happening during the process, in most learning situations. Progress will be fastest when the learner focuses their attention on a relevant aspect of what is actually happening during the process, rather than what they ‘should’ be doing or trying to get it ‘right’. • Learning happens best when the learner is focused on the present. It is more difficult to remember something from the past and apply it to the present rather than to make discoveries as they go along. • Trying to look good or using a lot of unfocused effort will interfere with the learning process. Faster progress is made, the less interference there is. • GROW was developed as a structured framework to use the Inner Game principles to achieve goals. The originators saw that, just as in sport, many individuals were struggling to achieve goals because they were not learning from experience and were not aware of the knowledge within themselves that would help them.