Chapter Two

1. Chapter Two Philosophy and Education

2. The Three Branches of Philosophy • Metaphysics: • What is real? • Epistemology: • How do we know? • Axiology: • What is valuable?

3. Metaphysics: What is Real? • What knowledge do students need to know? • What subjects shall we teach our students? • The question of metaphysics involves the curriculum of the school.

4. Changes in our metaphysical perspective • In traditional societies, religion was the basis of learning. • Todaylearning has become more secular.

5. Epistemology: How do we know? • How do we learn? • How shall we teach the subjects that we see as most important?

6. Changes in our Epistemological Perspective • In traditional societies, information was obtained from divine revelation or personal intuition. • Today learning involves hard work, reason and scientific experimentation.

7. Axiology: What Values are Most Important? • What values are the most important? • How do we teach those values?

8. Changes in Axiology: Values • In traditional societies, values were seen as absolute and unchanging. • Today we embrace a more relativistic set of values that reflect different cultures and worldviews.

9. Axiology: How do we Teach those values? • Traditional approaches to teaching required students to memorize lists of values and then recite them to the teacher. • Today teachers focus on the understanding of those values.

10. The Four Modern Western Philosophies • Idealism • Realism • Pragmatism • Existentialism

11. Idealism • First articulated by Plato in ancient Greece. • Centered on an unchanging set of ideas that form the core of our society.

12. Idealists Believed… • Classics and the study of the ancient languages (Greek and Latin) should form the basis of the curriculum (metaphysics). • Students learn best through memorization and recitation (epistemology). • Values are absolute and unchanging and best taught through memorization of specific sets of rules or oaths (axiology).

13. Realism • Realism developed in the 1600s and 1700s. • This theory examined the seeming paradoxical relationship between religion and science.

14. Realists Believed • Science and mathematics were the most important subjects (metaphysics). • An understanding of the natural laws of our world was the appropriate method of instruction (epistemology). • Values are absolute and unchanging and best taught through memorization (axiology).

15. Pragmatism • Developed in the 1800s. • This theory separated religion from the worldly activities of humankind.

16. Pragmatists Believed… • Students should understand the major problems facing society (metaphysics). • The curriculum should move from the abstract to the concrete, from the theoretical to the practical – learning by doing (epistemology). • Values are relative and rules are sometimes inadequate in guiding complex decision-making (axiology).

17. Existentialism • Attention is on the individual and the world of individual relationships. • This theory represented a change in the philosophical focus from religion to the individual. (We are responsible for our own actions.)

18. Existentialists Believed… • The best way to learn is through personal insight gained through journaling and autobiography (metaphysics). • The curriculum should address the questions of human existence, relationships, and an understanding of success and failure (epistemology). • Values are not only relative but students also have a role in choosing them and should explore individual choices and options (axiology).

19. Alternative & Non-Western Philosophies • Judaism, Christianity, and Islam • Native American • Asian • African American

20. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam • Each of these religions embrace a number of distinctive interpretations and sects. • These range from: progressive, inclusive denominations to conservative, fundamentalist divisions to cults • Progressive divisions are open to diversity and the separation of church and state and embrace a relative understanding of values. • More conservative, fundamentalist divisions tend to be less open to diversity of thought, more dogmatic in their understanding of science, and more oriented towards a belief in absolute values.

21. Native Americans • Some groups have philosophies that differ from western traditions. • Some emphasize living in harmony with the land (rather than the Western tradition of development). • Others stress cooperation with members of the community (rather than individualism and competition). • These values may conflict with traditional instruction in the classroom and require teachers to include cooperative learning and other forms of evaluation.

22. Asians • Some groups have philosophies that differ from western traditions. • Some embrace the values of harmony within the family and community. • Others emphasize respect for elders and authority. • Still others place special emphasis on politeness and devotion to tradition. • These values may conflict with traditional instruction in the classroom and require teachers to include cooperative learning and other forms of evaluation.

23. African Americans • African American culture is diverse as a result of historical experience. • Some groups have philosophies that differ from western traditions. • Some value introspective thought and strong family relationships as crucial ways of learning and understanding. • Art and music provide an important outlet of expression and communication for others. • These values may conflict with traditional instruction in the classroom and require teachers to include cooperative learning and other forms of evaluation.

24. The Danger of Stereotyping • All people belonging to Native American, Asian American, and African American ethnic groups are not the same and cannot be identified by their heritage alone. • Sometimes in our attempt to understand cultural differences among people, we begin to think in terms of stereotypes. This is dangerous. • This diversity reminds us of the complexities of teaching. • Teachers must develop a curriculum that both empowers and takes into account our diverse culture.

25. Educational Philosophies • Educators have developed a number of educational philosophies. • Some parallel one of the four modern philosophies. • Some borrow ideas from these and other alternative philosophies.

26. Two Philosophical Schools of Thought • Authoritarian • Democratic (non-authoritarian)

27. The Authoritarian School of Education • Rooted in Idealism and Realism • Derived from writings of John Locke – Blank Slate • Stressed the products rather than the process of learning • Favored a subject-centered curriculum • Embraced convergent thinking (inside the box) • Perennialism, Essentialism, Behaviorism and Positivism

28. Authoritarian School: Perennialism • Rooted in ideas of idealism and realism. • Has been the cornerstone of education for centuries. • Characterized by the “Great Books” curriculum. • Favors a standardized curriculum. • Prefers the top down “teacher centered,” or subject-centered method.

29. Authoritarian School: Essentialism • Essentialists focus on the development of essential skills for the future – especially the workplace. • Emphasizes a core curriculum -- referred to as basic skills. • Favors a top down learning environment. • Embrace the NCLB and EOGs as central to the learning experience.

30. Authoritarian School: Behaviorism • Rooted in psychology, especially William James, Edward Thorndike, John Watson, and B.F. Skinner. • Popular as a method of discipline and computer-aided instruction. • Students are essentially blank slates and can be “manipulated” through a rewards system to learn. • Emphasizes learning the facts as well as convergent thinking.

31. Authoritarian School: Positivism • Derived from the writings of Auguste Comte who argued that reality existed only as observable fact. • We can “know” only through direct observation. • Prefers a curriculum based primarily on science and math with rigorous assessment of specific knowledge. • Favors convergent thinking.

32. The Democratic School of Education • Rooted in Pragmatism and Existentialism • Derived from writings of Jean Jacque Rousseau • Stressed the Process rather than the Products of Learning • Favored an experience-centered or student-centered curriculum • Embraced Divergent thinking (outside the box) • Progressivism, Humanism, Constructivism, Post-Modernism, Reconstructionism

33. Democratic School: Progressivism • Emerged from the writings of pragmatists Charles Pierce, William James, and John Dewey. • Embraced realistic solutions to social problems. • Helped students understand their interconnections with members of the community in which they lived. • Favored an “open classroom” environment and cooperative learning. • Preferred the problem-solving approach that focuses on student interests. • Focused on the learner-centered or student-centered curriculum.

34. Democratic School: Reconstructionism • Emerged during the Great Depression and was influenced by the writings of George S. Counts. • Challenged teachers to become “transformative intellectuals”. • Provide students with a “Critical Pedagogy” (Henry Giroux) to become agents of social change.

35. Democratic School: Humanism • Embodies the ideas of Jean Jacque Rousseau. • Seeks to nurture the individual spirit without imposing external ideas on the student. • Promotes divergent thinking. • Favors the student-centered approach to learning.

36. Democratic School: Constructivism • Focuses on individual development through a nurturing approach to teaching. • Provides students with hands-on activities. • Favors the understanding of large, complex ideas rather than the mastery of facts. • At odds with the current emphasis on “mastery learning” and accountability as envisioned by the NCLB.

37. Democratic School: Postmodernism • Developed during the upheavals of society in the 1960s and 1970s. • The goal is to understand power relationships within society. • Believes that those in power use the institutions of government, culture and school to maintain their positions within society. • Contends that society has marginalized women, workers, people of color as well as cultural minorities.

38. Postmodernism (Continued) • The curriculum should include works of “marginalized” people in literature, history and other subjects. • Students will then appreciate the contributions of other members of our diverse society. • Favors a student-oriented approach and journal writing.

39. Axiology and Education • Moral Education • Character Education

40. Moral Education • Assumes that students are undeveloped • Focuses on the Development of moral reasoning • Consistent with the Democratic School • Embraces Progressivism, Reconstructionism, Humanism and Postmodernism

41. Character Education • Students are blank slates • Favors the transmission of “unambiguous moral values” • Consistent with the Authoritarian School • Embraces Perennialism, Essentialism, Behaviorism and Positivism