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Population Ecology - Characteristics, Responses, and Reproductive Patterns

Explore the major characteristics of populations and how they respond to changes in environmental conditions. Learn about the unique reproductive patterns of different species. Discover the latest updates and case studies in population ecology.

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Population Ecology - Characteristics, Responses, and Reproductive Patterns

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  1. Chapter 8 Population Ecology

  2. Chapter Overview Questions • What are the major characteristics of populations? • How do populations respond to changes in environmental conditions? • How do species differ in their reproductive patterns?

  3. Updates Online The latest references for topics covered in this section can be found at the book companion website. Log in to the book’s e-resources page at www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles. • InfoTrac: One Hatchling at a Time. Brownsville Herald (Brownsville, TX), July 2, 2006. • InfoTrac: Where the Cattle Herds Roam, Ideally in Harmony With Their Neighbors. Jim Robbins. The New York Times, July 11, 2006 pF3(L). • InfoTrac: A nudge for nature. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, July 10, 2006. • Earth Island Institute • Environmental Defense: Creating a Conservation Community inOregon’s Williamette Valley • Marine Bio: Habitat Conservation

  4. Core Case Study: Southern Sea Otters: Are They Back from the Brink of Extinction? • They were over-hunted to the brink of extinction by the early 1900’s and are now making a comeback. Figure 8-1

  5. Core Case Study: Southern Sea Otters: Are They Back from the Brink of Extinction? • Sea otters are an important keystone species for sea urchins and other kelp-eating organisms. Figure 8-1

  6. POPULATION DYNAMICS AND CARRYING CAPACITY • Most populations live in clumps although other patterns occur based on resource distribution. Figure 8-2

  7. (a) Clumped (elephants) Fig. 8-2a, p. 162

  8. (b) Uniform (creosote bush) Fig. 8-2b, p. 162

  9. (c) Random (dandelions) Fig. 8-2c, p. 162

  10. Changes in Population Size: Entrances and Exits • Populations increase through births and immigration • Populations decrease through deaths and emigration

  11. Age Structure: Young Populations Can Grow Fast • How fast a population grows or declines depends on its age structure. • Prereproductive age: not mature enough to reproduce. • Reproductive age: those capable of reproduction. • Postreproductive age: those too old to reproduce.

  12. Limits on Population Growth: Biotic Potential vs. Environmental Resistance • No population can increase its size indefinitely. • The intrinsic rate of increase (r) is the rate at which a population would grow if it had unlimited resources. • Carrying capacity (K): the maximum population of a given species that a particular habitat can sustain indefinitely without degrading the habitat.

  13. Exponential and Logistic Population Growth: J-Curves and S-Curves • Populations grow rapidly with ample resources, but as resources become limited, its growth rate slows and levels off. Figure 8-4

  14. Environmental Resistance Carrying capacity (K) Population size (N) Biotic Potential Exponential Growth Time (t) Fig. 8-3, p. 163

  15. Exponential and Logistic Population Growth: J-Curves and S-Curves • As a population levels off, it often fluctuates slightly above and below the carrying capacity. Figure 8-4

  16. Overshoot Carrying capacity Number of sheep (millions) Year Fig. 8-4, p. 164

  17. Exceeding Carrying Capacity: Move, Switch Habits, or Decline in Size • Members of populations which exceed their resources will die unless they adapt or move to an area with more resources. Figure 8-6

  18. Population overshoots carrying capacity Population Crashes Number of reindeer Carrying capacity Year Fig. 8-6, p. 165

  19. Exceeding Carrying Capacity: Move, Switch Habits, or Decline in Size • Over time species may increase their carrying capacity by developing adaptations. • Some species maintain their carrying capacity by migrating to other areas. • So far, technological, social, and other cultural changes have extended the earth’s carrying capacity for humans.

  20. How Would You Vote? To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main menu for Living in the Environment. • Can we continue to expand the earth's carrying capacity for humans? • a. No. Unless humans voluntarily control their population and conserve resources, nature will do it for us. • b. Yes. New technologies and strategies will allow us to further delay exceeding the earth's carrying capacity.

  21. Population Density and Population Change: Effects of Crowding • Population density: the number of individuals in a population found in a particular area or volume. • A population’s density can affect how rapidly it can grow or decline. • e.g. biotic factors like disease • Some population control factors are not affected by population density. • e.g. abiotic factors like weather

  22. Types of Population Change Curves in Nature • Population sizes may stay the same, increase, decrease, vary in regular cycles, or change erratically. • Stable: fluctuates slightly above and below carrying capacity. • Irruptive: populations explode and then crash to a more stable level. • Cyclic: populations fluctuate and regular cyclic or boom-and-bust cycles. • Irregular: erratic changes possibly due to chaos or drastic change.

  23. Types of Population Change Curves in Nature • Population sizes often vary in regular cycles when the predator and prey populations are controlled by the scarcity of resources. Figure 8-7

  24. Hare Lynx Population size (thousands) Year Fig. 8-7, p. 166

  25. Case Study: Exploding White-Tailed Deer Populations in the United States • Since the 1930s the white-tailed deer population has exploded in the United States. • Nearly extinct prior to their protection in 1920’s. • Today 25-30 million white-tailed deer in U.S. pose human interaction problems. • Deer-vehicle collisions (1.5 million per year). • Transmit disease (Lyme disease in deer ticks).

  26. REPRODUCTIVE PATTERNS • Some species reproduce without having sex (asexual). • Offspring are exact genetic copies (clones). • Others reproduce by having sex (sexual). • Genetic material is mixture of two individuals. • Disadvantages: males do not give birth, increase chance of genetic errors and defects, courtship and mating rituals can be costly. • Major advantages: genetic diversity, offspring protection.

  27. Sexual Reproduction: Courtship • Courtship rituals consume time and energy, can transmit disease, and can inflict injury on males of some species as they compete for sexual partners. Figure 8-8

  28. Reproductive Patterns:Opportunists and Competitors • Large number of smaller offspring with little parental care (r-selected species). • Fewer, larger offspring with higher invested parental care (K-selected species). Figure 8-9

  29. Carrying capacity K K species; experience K selection Number of individuals r species; experience r selection Time Fig. 8-9, p. 168

  30. Reproductive Patterns • r-selected species tend to be opportunists while K-selected species tend to be competitors. Figure 8-10

  31. r-Selected Species Cockroach Dandelion Many small offspring Little or no parental care and protection of offspring Early reproductive age Most offspring die before reaching reproductive age Small adults Adapted to unstable climate and environmental conditions High population growth rate (r) Population size fluctuates wildly above and below carrying capacity (K) Generalist niche Low ability to compete Early successional species Fig. 8-10a, p. 168

  32. K-Selected Species Elephant Saguaro Fewer, larger offspring High parental care and protection of offspring Later reproductive age Most offspring survive to reproductive age Larger adults Adapted to stable climate and environmental conditions Lower population growth rate (r) Population size fairly stable and usually close to carrying capacity (K) Specialist niche High ability to compete Late successional species Fig. 8-10b, p. 168

  33. Survivorship Curves: Short to Long Lives • The way to represent the age structure of a population is with a survivorship curve. • Late loss population live to an old age. • Constant loss population die at all ages. • Most members of early loss population, die at young ages.

  34. Survivorship Curves: Short to Long Lives • The populations of different species vary in how long individual members typically live. Figure 8-11

  35. Late loss Constant loss Percentage surviving (log scale) Early loss Age Fig. 8-11, p. 169

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