During period of small kingdoms, Arab Muslim traders arrived in India for first time

1. The Arrival of Islam Muslim Raiders • During period of small kingdoms, Arab Muslim traders arrived in India for first time • Traders sailed to ports on west coast in search of goods such as spices • Over time, traders settled in India, lived peacefully beside Hindus, Buddhists • Next Muslims to arrive not so peaceful • Early 700s, Muslim raiders invaded, conquered region of Sind, in what is now Pakistan • 300 years later, Muslims poured into north India from Afghanistan • By 1200s, most of northern India under Muslim control Muslim Rule in India After the fall of the Gupta Empire in the 500s, India broke apart into a number of small kingdoms.

2. Delhi Sultanate • Once Muslims took control of north India, established new government for region based in city of Delhi • Government became known as Delhi sultanate • Rulers in sultanate tolerant, allowed traditional customs, religions • Blending of Cultures • Rulers also worked to spread Muslim culture through India • Invited artists, scholars from other parts of Islamic world to Delhi • New culture formed, blending Muslim, Indian elements • Example: new language, Urdu, formed from combination of Arabic, Sanskrit

3. Mughal Empire

4. THE MUGHAL EMPIRE (1526-1707) • The Mughal emperors (first six rulers). • BABUR (1526-30) • HUMAYUN (1530-56) • AKBAR (1556-1605) • JAHANGIR (1605-28) • SHAHJAHAN (1628-58) • AURANGZEB (1658-1707)

5. Influence on India • Centralized government system. • Persian art/culture merged with native Indian art/culture. • New trade routes with Arabs and Turks. • Mughlai cuisine. • New architectural style. • Landscape gardening. • Urdu language developed from the fusion of Indian and Islamic culture. • Urdu = Persian + Arabic + Turkish

6. THE LARGEST ARMY • The Mughals maintained the largest standing army of that time. • Just one estimate: In 1628 there 200,000 salaried cavalrymen, 8000 mansabdars, 7000 ahadis and mounted musketeers were stationed at the imperial capital, besides the armies of the nobles, mansabdars and the princes. • In many instances they had the fastest moving army as well. Akbar was able to cover a distance of 500 miles (normally it took twenty-one days), in nine days to crush a rebellion (this feat was never repeated).

7. THE LARGEST ARMY… • Mughal dynamism depended on its military conquest, so much that some historians call it “a war state “(J F Richards). • Mughal emperors made little apology for attacking the neighbouring rulers and they regarded the adjoining territories either as tributaries or enemies.

8. Charismatic Rulers • The Mughal emperors, especially Akbar, created a special image of himself, and some of his personal qualities and virtues later served as a model for his successors (more details when legitimization process will be discussed).

9. Introduction • Under the Mughals, India was the heart of a great Islamic empire and a prolific center of Islamic culture and learning. • Dynasty was the greatest, richest and longest lasting Muslim dynasty to rule India. • Mongol Descendents • The Great Mughal Emperors were: • Babur (1526-1530) The First of the Mughals • Humayun (1530-1556) The Luckless Leader • Akbar (1556-1605) The Great • Jehangir (1605-1627) The Paragon of Stability • Shah Jehan (1627-1658) The Master Builder • Aurangzeb (1658-1707) The Intolerant

10. Babur Mughal Empire Wealth, Power • Young Central Asian conqueror named Zahir ud-Din, better known as Babur, “the tiger,” took advantage of India’s weakness • Tried, failed to create empire in Central Asia • Next turned to India • By 1526, had defeated rulers of Delhi, founded Mughal Empire • Name comes from Persian word Mogul for “Mongol” • Mughals reigned as India’s first great Muslim empire • Great civilization, known for wealth, power A New Empire • The Delhi sultanate remained strong for about 300 years. • By the early 1500s, its power was weakening. • This weakening left India open to invasion.

11. Mughal Empire Babur & Turks invade India 1526 - only wanted booty - remained when prevented from returning north used military tactics similar to Ottomans within 2 years held much of Indus & Ganges plain Babur’s death in 1530 brought invasion, successor flees to Persia - re-invade & restore control by 1556

12. Babur 1526 - 1530The First of the Mughals • Babur was a direct descendant of the Turkish Ghengis Khan and Timur from Tamerlane. • Defeated the Delhi Sultanate & established the Mughal Empire. • Gunpowder, a skilled commander, trained soldiers on horses contributed to the victory • Gained control of the whole northern India • Made Agra capital • He reigned for 4 short years and died at age 47 in 1530. • Did not enact new laws or organization in the empire due to early his death

13. Babur (r. 1525-1530) • Founder of the Mughal dynasty, descendant of Genghis Kahn. • Began in Afghanistan • Conquered Delhi in 1526 using gunpowder, mobile cavalry, mounted elephants—“modern” warfare. • Consolidated Indian states of the north

14. Humayun 1530 - 1556The Luckless Leader • After Babur died, he was succeeded by his son Humayun in 1530. Humayun was 23 years old. • He was not a soldier and unlike his father, neither skilled nor a wise leader. • Inherited a disunited and disorganized empire. • In 1540, Sher Shah of Bengal defeated Humayun and took over the Mughal Empire. The Empire was lost from 1540-1545. • He was exiled but later regained power in 1555. • Humayun died in 1556 after falling down the steps of his library; he is known as “the luckless one”.

15. Akbar 1556 - 1605The Great • Akbar become the new Mughal ruler at the age of 14. • Regent and his mother ruled in his name for 4 years • Akbar was an ambitious and noble commander • Built the largest army ever in the empire. • Helped to conquer nearly all of modern-day northern India and Pakistan. • Great administrator • developed a centralized government • It delegated 15 provinces each under a governor and each province into districts and each district was further sub-divided into smaller sections. • Best known for tolerance of his subjects (especially Hindus) • Removed poll taxes on Hindus • Invited religious scholars to debate him in his private chambers. • Developed his own faith call Din Ilahi. • Din Ilahi was a mixture of the other religions Akbar had studied from those debates. • Religion never caught on

16. Akbar (Babur’s grandson) defeats enemies great military & administrative talent reconciles with Hindu subjects - encourages intermarriage - abolishes head taxes - respects Hindu religious customs invents a faith incorporating Islam & Hinduism to unify subjects Hindu & Muslim warrior aristocracy granted land & labor for loyalty

17. attempts to introduce social changes to benefit regulate consumption of alcohol improve position of women prohibited sati encouraged widow remarriage discouraged child marriages most reforms not successful powerful empire in 1600s yet most of population live in poverty

18. Akbar the Great • Babur’s Grandson • Babur died shortly after conquest of India, task of organizing what he conquered fell to descendants • Most done by grandson, Akbar the Great • Diverse Population • Akbar took throne at age 13, but became greatest of all Mughal rulers • Realized India had diverse population, which could lead to breakdown of empire; did everything he could to win people’s loyalty • Expanding Rule • Akbar married daughter of local noble to win noble’s support • Brought sons of other nobles to live at court • Did not hesitate to fight to prevent rebellion • 1605, Akbar died; at time, Mughals ruled most of north India, much of interior

19. Akbar the Great (r. 1556-1605) • Founder the Mughal Empire • Contemporary of Elizabeth I and Süleyman • Responsible for uniting most of the Indian subcontinent. • Policy of imperial expansion. • Gunpowder empire • Governmental reforms, cultural patronage, and religious toleration.

20. THE LEGITIMACY… • First of all, the Muslim rulers in India, like their early Muslim predecessors, neither broke away the established kingship system nor interfered with customs, the social order, or indigenous structure of the village administration. • The Muslim kings did not present themselves as lawmakers for non-Muslim subjects, but as their protectors and guaranteed the continuity

21. Govt Admn and Ministers • Most of the administrative institutions were initiated and established during the reign of Akbar. • He was able to build a centralized administration which was capable of steady expansion as new territories were added to the empire. • At the apex of this system was the emperor who acted as a chief executive. • At the central level there were four main officials and their ministries namely: Diwan in charge of finance and revenue, Mir Bakshi in charge of army and intelligence, Qazi in charge of judiciary and patronage and Mir-i-Saman in charge of the royal household, and its central workshops, buildings, roads and canals throughout the empire.

22. THE MINISTERS.. • The Mughal civil and administrative officials were regulated and organized under the mansabdari system. • Each of these officials were supported and helped by a large staff of clerks, accountants, auditors, messengers, and other functionaries.

23. THE PROVINCIAL OFFICIALS • The division of functions established at the centre was duplicated in the provinces. • At each provincial capital a subahdar (governor) responsible directly to the emperor, shared power with a diwan (finance official) reported to the imperial diwan, bakshi (military and intelligence official) reported to the mir-bakshi and a sadr reported to the imperial qazi.

24. THE MANSABDARI SYSTEM • Every official in the Mughal empire, high or low, had a rank or a mansab. • Their status, duties, pay and importance were graded accordingly. • Technically, all mansabdars had to maintain a military contingent for which they were paid. • All other officials were paid in cash. • During Akbar’s time the official bearing a decimal rank of 500 were ranked as a noble or umara. • But by the end of the seventeenth century the mansabdars with 1000 rank were accorded the status of a umara.

25. THE MANSABDARI …. • All mansabdars had dual ranks and they were remunerated on that basis. • The successful regulation of the mansabs and the salary assignment (jagirdari system) can be truly termed as a Mughal phenomenon.

26. THE MANSABDARI… • All Mughal officials received a dual rank when they joined the Mughal imperial service. • That was zat (personal salary) and sawar (payment for the military contingent) • . For example the mansab of Prince Salim (Jahangir) was 5000 zat/5000 sawar. • What does it mean: Prince Salim’s personal salary was based on his mansab of 5000 zat and for 5000 sawar, he had to maintain a military contingent.

27. THE MANSABDARI… • During Akbar’s reign the ratio was one horsemen and two horses and a mansabdar of 5000 sawar had to maintain a contingent of 5000 horsemen. • The mansabdars zat rank never exceeded his sawar rank (either it used to be equal 5000/5000 or 3000/ 4000 or less than the sawar rank). • The zat numerals were always used to be stated first. • The highest rank (mansab) was 7000/7000 which was awarded to the officials/royalty.

28. CHANGES IN THE MANSABDARI • After the reign of Akbar when the highest ranking mansabdars who had reached the maximum limit in their mansab had nothing to aspire for. • For this reason there were some changes in the mansabdari system. • The quota of the contingent which each mansabdar had to maintain was lowered and there were further reductions in the contingent if the mansabdars were posted on the frontiers or far away places.

29. THE JAGIRDARI SYSTEM • All the Mughal mansabdars were paid through an assignment of jagirs. • These jagirs can be linked to the Delhi Sultan’s Iqta system where the Sultans parcelled out their territories to be administered by their nobles and the state officials. • These officials were responsible for maintaining law and order and collection of land revenue. • After meeting the necessary expenses the iqtadars used to send the surplus revenue to the central treasury.

30. THE JAGIRDARI… • The jagir assignments initiated by Akbar, however, only gave the right to collect revenues to the mansabdars. • They were not responsible to maintain law and order or any other responsibilities. • It was a purely fiscalarrangement and only Rajput mansabdars were given more extensive rights of residence within their own homeland (Rajputana). • They received patrimonial (Mughal term: watan) lands as a part of the jagirs assigned to them.

31. THE MUGHAL NOBILITY • Mughal nobility was unique in two ways: • a) Mughal empire was the only Muslim state where the shia and the sunni nobles co-existed peacefully. • b) Empire provided opportunities for service irrespective of ethnic, religious or familial ties and thus created a “new individual and group identity”.

32. THE NOBILITY… • (like the Turkish nobility), those who rose to eminence as their talents and the emperor’s favours permitted. • But no single ethnic or sectarian group was ever large enough to challenge the authority of the emperor. • Rewards and incentives rather than force and coercion were the Mughal’s preferred approach. • The system offered generous money rewards as well as lavish honours and preferment to those who performed well at all levels.

33. Social Aspects • Generally the Mughal Empire is thought of as a prosperous time period. • Even though the Mughal Empire existed 300-500 years ago, its influence still exists in current day India. • The social aspects of the Mughal Empire and India today especially relate including family life, religion, art, music, literature, and education. • During the Mughal Empire, women had a significant role in family life. • Women received salaries, owned land, participated in business transactions, and literary activities. • Aristocratic women painted, wrote poetry, and played music because they received a higher education.

34. Social Aspects (cont.) The Mughal Empire was run by Muslim emperors, however India was and still is Hindu dominated. Hindus, specifically of the upper class, adopted the Muslim practice of isolating women, called purda. The Hindu practice of cremation of widows, called suttee, continued even though the Mughals tried to abolish it. The Mughal rulers sometimes forced Islam upon the Hindus, but many times the Hindus resisted. Hindu men would marry Islam women and convert them to Hinduism in order to keep their religion prominent. Families looked down upon Hindus if one converted to Islam. Child marriage also remained common. Depending on the emperor, there was religious acceptance and tolerance, but religious segregation still existed.

35. Reforms Firm Grip on Finances • Abolished taxes placed on non-Muslims by earlier rulers • Appointed Hindus to several influential positions in government • Encouraged discussions, debates among Muslims, Hindus, Christians, people of other religions • Established centralized government that gave him supreme civil, military authority over his empire • Reformed tax system, appointed officials to oversee it • Majority of officials from outside Mughal Empire Akbar’s Achievements • Religious Tolerance • Akbar worked to unify diverse empire by promoting religious tolerance • Held that no one religion could provide all answers to life’s problems • Did not want to discourage people from practicing any religion, discriminate against anyone for their beliefs

36. Productive agricultural economy was the base and foundation to all of the Islamic empires. They relied heavily on crops of wheat and rice. The profit from agricultural trade and production went mostly to finance armies and bureaucracies. The Columbian exchange brought change (though not as dramatic as the change in Europe and Asia) by introducing American food crops such as maize, potatoes, and tomatoes. Maize was used as feed for animals because it was not popular for food use for the Islamic people. Economic Developments

37. Tobacco and coffee traded by European merchants became very popular in the 16th century. Plantations specialized in the production of these items in a similar way as sugar in America. The interest in coffee and tobacco sparked a new tradition of coffee and smoke houses where the people could indulge in both of the addictive substances. In the mid sixteenth century, both the drink and tobacco were outlawed because of their distraction on moral teachings. The rise in population in the Mughal empire was attributed mainly to their success in agriculture rather than trade. The people of the Mughal empire also participated actively. Economic Developments (cont.)

38. Known for his Humane Rule 1. accepted the diversity of Indian civilization a. religious tolerance * allowed Hindus to serve in court * allowed the Jesuits b. allowed Hindus to serve in court c. took Hindu wives as some of his princesses

39. Policy of toleration and acceptance. • Married a Hindu princess and employed Jesuit missionaries as advisors. • Abolished certain restrictions on Hindus. • Restricted power of ulama • Became hostile to Islam: created a new faith called the Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith)—combined aspects of different religions and the central belief was that the emperor and his decisions were perfect. • Mughal version of divine right of kings. • Created an Indian Empire more so than Islamic Akbar’s Reign

40. Tolerant Administration 1 high officials were Muslims 2. lower officials were Hindu 3. Zamindars (Local Officials) a. paid in land b. peasants farmed land for the officials * 1/3 of a peasants salary taxed * taxes flexible Political Stability Allowed Industry to Flourish

41. Rule Jahangir • Ruthless start, but good ruler • Continued religious tolerance; supported arts; adopted Persian influences into Indian society • Acceptance of Persian customs inspired by Persian-born wife, Nur Jahan • Powerful woman who ruled for several years while husband ill • Babur, Akbar laid foundation for powerful empire • Rulers who followed built upon foundation, raised Mughal India to new heights of power, wealth • Akbar’s son, Jahangir, intelligent, impatient to rule, rebelled against father; later reconciled • In 1605 became emperor after Akbar’s death Height of the Mughal Empire

42. Art • Known for manuscripts and Persian miniature paintings. • Very symbolic. • Involved a lot of nature (birds, flowers, animals, etc.) • Very colorful and detailed. • In 1680 Emporer Shah Jahan banned music and painting from his court, but he allowed architectural art, such as the Pearl Mosque and the Taj Mahal.

43. Mughal Art • The Mughal Empire and the Great Mughals will always be remembered as a great influence on the artistic and cultural life of India. Their architectural style can still be seen today such as the Taj Mahal built by Shah Jehan and the buildings at Fatehpur Sikri. • The remarkable flowering of art and architecture under the Mughal Empire is due to several factors. • The empire provided a secure framework within which artistic genius could flourish. Both Hindu and Muslim artists collaborated to produce some of the best Indian art. • The empire commanded wealth and resources that were unparalleled in Indian history. • The Mughal emperors were themselves patrons of art whose intellectual ideas and cultural outlook were expressed in the architecture.

44. Architecture • Nearly 400 monuments have survived a time-span of 132 years. • White marble and red sandstone was favored. • Semi-precious gemstones were popular (jade, crystal, etc.) • Used arches sparingly. • Symmetry and balance stressed. • Used octagons a lot.

45. This is the famous Fatehpur Sikri which was the new capital built by Akbar, as a part of his attempt to absorb other religions into Islam. Fatehpur Sikri is a synthesis of Hindu and Islamic architecture.

46. HUMAYUN’S TOMB, DELHI

47. Clothing • Kurta ~ an informal dress worn by Mughal men and women. • Sometimes sewn with gold or silver threads. • Cut in long, flowing panels for comfort; about knee-length. • Traditional wear in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.

48. Jehangir 1605 - 1627The Paragon of Stability • Jehangir succeeded his father Akbar in 1605. • Opposite of his father • Poor monarch and warrior but good at maintaining the status quo. • He continued many of Akbar’s policies. • Freedom of worship. • Fair treatment of Hindus. • Continued friendship and alliance with Rajputs. • Allowed foreigners like the Portuguese and English into India for trade. • Jehangir married Nur Jahan. She became the real ruler of the empire until the death of her husband.

49. The Mughal Dynasty Jahangir - court fell into the hands of his wives a. Nur Jahan * used her position to increase her families wealth

50. Jehangir Issues (specific) • Under the influence of his wife and many others, Jehangir was not an able ruler like his father. • He loved to drink and enjoy himself. • He had to suppress many rebellions. • Important posts in the court were given to families, friends, and especially those close to his wife, Jahan.