Outline

1. Outline • Introduction • Conceptual issues • Theoretical Framework • African Perspectives and the construction of Resilience • Resilience Strategies in Education Systems • Some Empirical data on the development of Resilience • Lessons drawn • Conclusions and recommendations  

2. Introduction Masten (2000) points out that a vital quality of resilient communities is that they foster the development of their children into competent adults and productive citizens (Masten, 2000). But the context of development varies because of differences in norms, beliefs and values specific to the culture. Since there exists interaction between biological and cultural factors, this presupposes both a universal and context specific view of the development of resilience skills.

3. Cont. This paper focuses on African indigenous approaches to developing resilience in children to find out the extent to which these can impact formal education practices. Children in Africa grow up in difficult situations that are characterized by poverty, war and violence, dysfunctional families and different forms of natural disasters. But formal education in Africa is influenced by inherited tripartite values from western education, Christianity and influences from the Muslim east.

4. Cont African education focuses on developing children’s generative capacity through its humanitarian values and resilient skills. It addresses relational norms and obligations exemplified in practices of exchange and shared values in order to inculcate a sense of collective responsibility. The problem facing current educational practices is the much focus on western systems to the exclusion of other knowledge systems and thought processes that can contribute to the development of humanitarian values in resilience systems.

5. Conceptual Issues Humanitarianism education is an attempt to teach various social topics that should Provide children with sound knowledge on human relations and skills. Humanitarianism in resilient systems in education addresses sustainable education. The aforementioned, echoes the position of the Dakar World Conference in 2000 that emphasizes the rights of children in emergencies. It also stresses that education programmes should promote mutual understanding of peace and tolerance. Today in most school systems for example in Cameroon, ministries of education are expanding the curriculum by enforcing environmental education, civic and citizenship education and peace and nation building at all levels. It is taught as an independent discipline or mainstreamed across the curriculum in some cases. In indigenous African Education, humanitarian education is person-centered and emphasizes the teaching of spiritual and human values such as respect, tolerance, solidarity, feeling and support for others, sense of responsibility and other skills.

6. Cont. Genero (1998) views resilience as a relational concept rather than as an individual characteristic whereas Walsh (1998) suggests that being resilient includes more than merely surviving and being a victim for life. Resilience is thus a dynamic and multidimensional construct that incorporates the bidirectional interaction between individuals and their environments within the family, peer, school and community and society. Resilience systems. Resilience systems in African context would be those structures at home, the community, school and society at large that ensure that children have access to Livelihood opportunities for quality development and wellbeing. The end product is a focus on the development of positive mental health, self-image and reduced access to risk conditions.

7. Theoretical Perspectives Resilience theory is associated with a reduction in emphasis on pathology and an increase in emphasis on strengths (Rak & Patterson, 1996). This permit a shift from vulnerability/deficit models hypothesis when faced with adversity. If resilience is developmental whereby children continuously acquire the habit of using both internal and external resources to ensure positive adaptation even in crisis situations then there is need to see the explanative theoretical framework from an interactional perspective. Processes employed can be explained from cognitive framework (Ionescu, 2006), the ecosystem approach (Bronfenbrenner, 1978), psychosocial approach (Erikson, 1968) and Bowlby’s theory of attachment (1977) which provides a strong foundation for resilience. Such wide perspective in the use of explanative theories should pose problem for research.

8. African Perspectives and the construction of Resilience Africentric education has as one of its tenets, the decolonizing of the African mind in order to overthrow the authority of alien traditions over the African (Chinweizu, 1987). This is not rejecting foreign tradition but it is a denial of its authoritative control in the African culture. Africentric education equips African children with self knowledge with the purpose of instilling in them a sense of agency for the purpose of personal development, community development and nation building (Shockley, 2007).

9. Cont. In other words, children are taught about their responsibility to forge their development and that of their community. Despite the lack of support in the notions of Africentric systems of education, the concept of African agency and resiliency remains critically important for African children. In the context of African-centered literature, a "sense of agency“ or resilience is understood as a people's or person’s ability, empowerment, and entitlement to control and mandate the arenas of life around them (Asante, 1988, 1990;Maluccio, 2002).

10. Cont According to Asante (1980), western educational systems do not inspire a sense of resilience and agency in African children. Only Africentric schools have attempted to imbue a sense of agency in African children (Akoto, 1992). Africentric education systems offer a holistic approach for bringing about a sense of agency and resilience for African children by using education as one vehicle for such change. Africentric education must be understood not simply as a tool for improving educational conditions, but as a tool for a holistic change in the local community. Resilient socialization networks in child upbringing in Africa nurture a sense of responsibility for self and others and their functioning.

11. Resilience Strategies in Education Systems Since 1972, education reforms have focused on relevance and quality through various reforms in Cameroon: • Ruralisation of education with the main objective to make children self-reliant very early by developing in them love for agriculture and manual work, • Environmental education at all levels; from primary to university education is emphasized with more field experiences where children and students are involved in different activities in the communities. • Bilingualism posed language barrier for most children particularly when none of these languages are any of the mother tongues of the children. Children become vulnerable and this affects school performance. Government’s strategy is through a policy where English and French are taught as both curriculum content and medium for instruction.

12. Cont • Gender sensitive education to increase access and progression for girls through school friendly system The school friendly policy introduced democratic values. Other enhancing strategies are the creation of a gender friendly school community, provision of healthy learning environment with available health centers in the catchment areas, good sanitation, borehole toilets, pipe borne water, increased partnership with the community and more parental involvement in school activities. • Schools, colleges and universities are now more disability friendly from divers perspectives, in particular infrastructure and pedagogical practices. • Other enabling strategies are the positioning of guidance counselors in schools and the strengthening of teacher education programmes in terms of content and professional development. • The institution of the New Pedagogic Approach (Participatory)

13. Cont The participatory approach uses the techniques of hands-on, apprenticeship and collaboration in group and individual work. Through these engagements, children gain skills and ability to manage and cope.

14. Cont Other nongovernmental and individual structures provide support to vulnerable children. These institutions use community-based and grass roots protective strategies to provide social support to children who were victims of one form of natural disaster or another for example . “Serve the Orphans Foundation "is an example. Effective support mechanisms include visits from Community leaders, and training for self reliant skills. Community-based approaches help children cope with the feeling of being stigmatized, dropping out from school and other emotional traumas that increase their psychological burden on the growing up process. The main strategy to achieve this is through individual competency skill building.

15. Other Examples Resilience in Education from Africa Resilience Strategies in other African Education Systems adopted the following strategies (Bird 2009) to strengthened children’s learning and resilience: Uganda Education Sector Strategic Plan for example,(ESSP, 2004-20015) has put in place structures to address the conflict in the North of the country through its approach which aims to support and guide quality education for national integration, individual and national development by instituting • Free fees for universal primary education programme targeting disadvantaged children and children in conflict areas • Design and help teachers to use curricular and instruction appropriate for pupils in conflict areas • Provide sufficient quantities of reading materials in local languages to overcome feelings of alienation and exclusion In Sierra Leone, UNICEF and Save the children sector plan (2007-20015) address peace building strategy. In Kenya, context based indicators are being identified that will be integrated into the education management Information System (EMIS) for disaster preparedness and emergency response.

16. Cont. Another example comes from the new Afghan National Education StrategicPlan (2010-2015), focusing more on references to school protection, community participation and human rights, suggesting that peace messages should be mainstreamed both in the national curriculum and in teacher training. The “cross cutting issues are peace education, human rights, elimination of violation of children and women’s rights, environmental protection, and HIV. These will be addressed in the textbooks” (Afghan National Education Strategic Plan, p.5). Incorporating the participation of the local elders and community leaders is important for success. Tchad is emulating this model. Christie and Potterton (1997) mentioned the characteristics of resilience schools in South African society as a sense of responsibility, leadership and management style, flexibility, commitment to teaching and learning, improving programme, safety and organisation, authority and discipline, culture concerns, governance and community relationship and parental involvement.

17. Some Empirical data on the development of Resilience Research findings are highly congruent with a growing world literature on what makes a difference in the lives of children whose development is threatened by adversity (Cowen, 2000; Glantz & Johnson, 1999; Luthar, Cicchetti and Becker, 2000; Masten, 1994; Masten & Coatsworth, 1998). Some of the most frequently reported "protective factors" in the literature; provide clues about the processes that lead to resilience. Protective systems for human development having implications in resilience studies are attachment systems, self regulation systems and spirituality among others. Findings from resilience research suggest that the greatest threats to children are those adversities that undermine the basic human protective systems for development. Programmes and policies that support effective parenting and the availability of competent adults in the lives of children are crucial.

18. Cont. Literature is replete with research findings on what can be learnt from cultural practices to enhance the development resilience in formal education. Even in Latino culture and Indian First Nation culture in the US (Stutman, Baruch, Grotberg & Rathore, 2002:38) the rich values and experiences provide good examples for the development of resilience. Heavy Runner and Morris (1997) comment on these values and their relationship to the development of resilience in children through oral tradition such as for Examples, songs and storytelling. Listening with patience and respect creates opportunities for developing resilience. The traditional Indian family like most African family traditions are rich with profound values and norms.

19. Cont. Grotberg (1992) in his study of Sudanese and Norwagian child-rearing practices also found variations in parental attitudes towards resolving children’s problems with peers. The use of song, music and dance has a strong tradition in South Africa as a vital pedagogic mechanism (Sæther 2002),. They are valuable indigenous pedagogical tools for learning in school and about cultural traditions.

20. Lessons drawn Lessons from the review illustrated that resilience varies as a function of the culture. Cultural strategies for building resilience are many and rich. • Network such as the family, school and the community are major partners in developing vulnerable children’s resilience. • Use indigenous pedagogy approaches and techniques • Use more participatory pedagogic strategies • Strengthening children’s resilience skills for the development of their self-image. • Identity and self-esteem are central processes in resilience. • Furthermore, it is important to build such skills based on pupil’s entry characteristics and what obtains in the culture.

21. Conclusions and Recommendations The standards by which parents, teachers, and community members judge how well a child is developing, though may vary across cultures, are based on developmental tasks. These tasks are the broad expectations parents and the societies have for children of different ages. More research is required for better understanding of vulnerable children’s resilience. A study of the cognitive functioning of vulnerable children and the impact the development of resilience skills would provide added knowledge on directions for interventions.

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