Chapter 8

1. Chapter 8 Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood PowerPoints developed by Jenni Fauchier, Metropolitan Community College -- Omaha (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

2. The Development of Self-Understanding • Children increasingly describe themselves with psychological characteristics and traits • They become more likely to recognize social aspects of the self • More likely to distinguish themselves from others in comparative rather than in absolute terms (Harter, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3. Self-Esteem and Self-Concept • Self-esteem -- global evaluations of the self; self-worth or self-image • Self-esteem reflects perceptions that do not always match reality • Self-concept -- domain-specific evaluations of the self • Children self-evaluate in many domains of their lives -- academic, athletic, appearance (Dusek & McIntyre, 2003; Harter, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

4. Increasing Children’s Self-Esteem • Identify the causes of low self-esteem • Provide emotional support and social approval • Help children achieve • Help children cope (Bednar, Wells, & Peterson, 1995; Harter, 1999, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

5. Self-Efficacy • Self-efficacy -- belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes • Self-efficacy influences a student’s choice of activities • students with low self-efficacy for learning may avoid many learning tasks, especially those that are challenging • high-self-efficacy counterparts eagerly work at learning tasks (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2003, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

6. Self Regulation • Self-regulation -- deliberate efforts to manage one’s behavior, emotions, and thoughts that lead to increased social competence and achievement • Capacity in self-regulation is linked to developmental advances in the brain’s prefrontal cortex (Laible & Thompson, 2007; Saarni & others, 2006) (Durston & others, 2007) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

7. Erikson’s 4th Stage: Industry Versus Inferiority • Industry -- becoming interested in how things are made and how they work • When children are encouraged in their efforts, their sense of industry increases • Parents who see their children’s efforts at making things as “mischief” or “making a mess” foster a sense of inferiority in their children (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

8. Developmental Changes in Emotion • Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation • Increased awareness of the events leading to emotional reactions • Ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions • The use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings • A capacity for genuine empathy (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

9. Recommendations for Parents and Teachers to Promote Coping Strategies • Repeatedly reassure children of their safety and security • Allow children to retell events and be patient in listening to them • Encourage children to talk about any disturbing or confusing feelings; confirm normality of the feelings  • Protect children from re-exposure to frightening situations and reminders of the trauma • Help children make sense of what happened (Gurwitch & others, 2001) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

10. Moral Development • According to Piaget, older children: • consider the intentions of the individual • believe that rules are subject to change • are aware that punishment does not always follow wrongdoing • Based on Piaget, Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development which he believed are universal (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

11. The Kohlberg Stages • Based on Piaget, Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development which he believed are universal • Preconventional reasoning -- children interpret good and bad in terms of external rewards and punishments • Conventional reasoning -- individuals apply certain standards, but they are the standards set by others, such as parents or the government • Postconventional reasoning -- individuals recognize alternative moral courses, explore the options, and then decide on a personal moral code (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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13. Kohlberg’s Substages • Preconventional reasoning • Stage 1. Heteronomous morality • Stage 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange • Conventional reasoning • Stage 3. Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity • Stage 4. Social systems morality • Postconventional reasoning • Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual rights • Stage 6. Universal ethical principles (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

14. Kohlberg’s Critics • Key criticisms involve • link between moral thought and moral behavior • roles of culture and the family in moral development • significance of concern for others • Kohlberg’s theory misses or misconstrues some moral concepts in particular cultures (Lapsley, 2006; Lapsley & Narvaez, 2006; Smetana, 2006; Turiel, 2006; Walker, 2006) (Miller, 2006; Shweder & others, 2006; Wainryb, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

15. Gender and the Care Perspective • The most publicized criticism of Kohlberg’s theory has come from Carol Gilligan • She argues that Kohlberg’s theory reflects a gender bias • Kohlberg’s theory is based on a male norm that puts abstract principles above relationships and concern for others • In contrast to Kohlberg’s justice perspective, Gilligan argues for a care perspective (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

16. Prosocial Behavior • Kohlberg’s and Gilligan’s theories have focused on moral reasoning • Study of prosocial moral behavior emphasizes behavioral aspects of moral development • sharing is one aspect of prosocial behavior • by the elementary school years, children express objective ideas about fairness (Grusec, Davidov, & Lundell, 2002) (Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

17. Gender Stereotypes, Similarities and Differences • Gender stereotypes -- broad categories that reflect general impressions and beliefs about females and males • Similarities and differences between boys and girls -- bear in mind… • the differences are averages • even when differences are reported, there is considerable gender overlap • the differences may be due primarily to biological and/or sociocultural factors (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

18. Physical Development   • Males grow to be 10% taller • Females have a longer life expectancy • Females are less likely to develop physical or mental disorders • Males have twice the risk of coronary disease • Male hormones promote the growth of long bones; female hormones stop such growth at puberty • Researchers have found some differences in the brains of males and females (Goldstein & others, 2001; Kimura, 2000) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

19. Cognitive Development   • Males have better math and visuospatial skills whereas females have better verbal abilities • Later studies showed verbal differences between females and males had virtually disappeared, but that math and visuospatial differences still existed • Cognitive differences between females and males have been exaggerated (Maccoby & Jacklin,1974) (Maccoby, 1987) (Hyde, 2005, 2007) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

20. Socioemotional Development   • Boys are more physically aggressive than girls • girls tend to be more verbally aggressive • there are no definitive findings on relational aggression -- behaviors such as spreading malicious rumors or ignoring someone when angry • Boys are more likely to hide negative emotions • Girls are less likely to express disappointment that might hurt others’ feelings (White, 2001) (Crick & others, 2004; Underwood, 2004) (Eisenberg, Martin, & Fabes, 1996) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

21. Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior • Females view themselves as more prosocial and empathic • Across childhood and adolescence, females engage in more prosocial behavior • The biggest gender difference occurs for kind and considerate behavior with a smaller difference in sharing (Eisenberg & Morris, 2004) (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998; Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

22. Gender-Role Classification in Context • Androgyny-- the presence of positive masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person • androgynous individuals are more flexible, competent, and mentally healthy • The importance of considering gender in context is very apparent when examining what is culturally prescribed behavior for females and males in different countries around the world (Bem, 1977; Spence & Helmreich, 1978) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

23. Developmental Changes in Parent-Child Relationships • In middle and late childhood years, parents spend considerably less time with children • Parents continue to be important • Parents support and stimulate academic achievement • Children receive less physical discipline than they did as preschoolers • Children in grade school use more self-regulation (Huston & Ripke, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

24. Parents as Managers • Parents can play important roles • managers of children’s opportunities • monitors of children’s behavior • social initiators and arrangers • Family management practices are positively related to students’ grades and self-responsibility, and negatively to school-related problems (Parke & Buriel, 2006) (Taylor, 1996) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

25. Stepfamilies • About half of all children whose parents divorce will have a stepparent • Complex histories and multiple relationships make adjustment difficult in a stepfamily • Children often have better relationships with their custodial parents • Simple families show better adjustment than complex (blended) families (Hetherington, 2006) (Hetherington & Stanley-Hagan, 2002) (Santrock, Sitterle, & Warshak, 1988) (Anderson & others, 1999; Hetherington & Kelly, 2002) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

26. Types of Stepfamilies • Three common types of stepfamily structure are • stepfather • mother typically had custody of the children and remarried • stepmother • father usually had custody and remarried • blended or complex • In a blended or complex stepfamily, both parents bring children from previous marriages to live in the newly formed stepfamily (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

27. Latchkey Children • Latchkey children -- children who use the key to their home to let themselves in after school while their parents are still at work • latchkey children are largely unsupervised for two to four hours or more per day • experiences of latchkey children vary enormously • parental monitoring and authoritative parenting help the child cope more effectively (Galambos & Maggs, 1989; Steinberg, 1986) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

28. After-School Programs • Practitioners and policymakers recommend that after-school programs have • warm and supportive staff • flexible and relaxed schedule • multiple activities • opportunities for positive interactions with staff and peers (Coley, Morri, & Hernandez, 2004) (Pierce, Hamm, & Vandell, 1997) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

29. Developmental Changes in Peer Relations • Reciprocity becomes especially important in peer interchanges • Amount of time spent in social interaction with peers increases • Size of their peer group increases • Peer interaction is less closely supervised by adults • Until age 12, same-sex peer groups are preferred (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

30. Peer Status • Sociometric status -- describes the extent to which children are liked or disliked by their peer group • 5 peer statuses • Popular children • Average children • Neglected children • Rejected children • Controversial children (Ladd, Herald, & Andrews, 2006) (Wentzel & Asher,1995) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

31. Being Popular • Popular children • give out reinforcements • listen carefully • maintain open lines of communication with peers • are happy and control their negative emotions • show enthusiasm and concern for others • are self-confident without being conceited (Hartup, 1983; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998). (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

32. Other Statuses • Neglected children -- low rates of interaction with their peers; often described as shy by peers • Rejected children often have more serious adjustment problems than those who are neglected • Some but not all rejected children are aggressive (Coie, 2004; Ladd, 2005) (Ladd, 2006; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006; Hymel, McDougall, & Renshaw, 2004) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

33. Training for More Effective Interactions with Peers • Help them to attract attention from their peers in positive ways and hold that attention by asking questions, by listening in a warm and friendly way, and by saying things about themselves that relate to the peers’ interests. • Role-playing or discussing hypothetical situations involving negative encounters with peers (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

34. Social Cognition • Social cognition -- thinking about social matters • important for understanding peer relationships • 5 steps in processing information about the social world • decode social cues • interpret • search for a response • select an optimal response • enact (Dodge, 1983) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

35. Bullying • Bullied children reported more loneliness and difficulty in making friends • Anxious and socially withdrawn children may be victimized because they are non-threatening and unlikely to retaliate • Aggressive children may be the targets because their behavior is irritating to bullies (DeRosier & Marcus, 2005; Evertson & Weinstein, 2006; Roberts, 2005) (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

36. Victims of bullies had • higher incidence of headaches • more abdominal pain • sleeping problems and feeling tiredness • more depression • Those who did the bullying were more likely to have a poor academic record and to smoke and drink alcohol (Fekkes, Pijpers, & Verloove-Vanhorick, 2004) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

37. Reducing Bullying • Teachers and schools can employ several strategies • Get older peers to serve as monitors • Develop school-wide rules and sanctions against bullying and post them • Incorporate the message of the anti-bullying program into other community activities • Identify bullies and victims early • Use social skills training to improve bullies’ behavior (Hyman & others, 2006; Limber, 1997, 2004; Milsom & Gallo, 2006) (Macklem, 2003) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

38. Functions of Friendships • Children’s friendships can serve six functions • companionship  • stimulation • physical support • ego support • social comparison • affection and intimacy • Intimacy in friendships -- characterized by self-disclosure and the sharing of private thoughts Gottman & Parker, 1987) (Berndt & Perry, 1990) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

39. Constructivist Approach • Constructivist approach -- learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher • children should be encouraged to explore their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think critically with careful monitoring and meaningful guidance from the teacher (Eby, Herrell, & Jordan, 2006; Eggen & Kauchak, 2006; Morrison, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

40. Direct Instruction Approach • Direct instruction approach -- structured, teacher-centered approach characterized by teacher direction and control, high expectations for students’ progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum • Important goal: maximizing student learning (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

41. Constructivist versus Direct Instruction Approach • Constructivists argue that direct instruction turns children into passive learners and does not challenge them to think critically or creatively • Direct instructions say that constructivists do not give enough attention to the content of a discipline and instruction is too relativistic and vague (Duffy & Kirkley, 2004) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

42. Accountability • Demands for accountability include • state-mandated tests to measure just what students have or have not learned • high expectations and high standards for students (McNergney & McNergney, 2007) (Revelle, 2004) (Lewis, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

43. Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity • Schools in low-income areas are more likely to: • have more students with low achievement test scores • have low graduation rates • have small percentages of students going to college • have young teachers with less experience • encourage rote learning • have buildings and classrooms that are old and crumbling (Spring, 2008) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

44. Ethnicity in Schools • School segregation remains a factor in U.S. education • The school experiences of students from different ethnic groups vary considerably • Institutional racism, by which teachers accept a low level of performance from children of color, permeates many American schools (Banks, 2006) (Bennett, 2007; Spring, 2008) (Ogbu & Stern, 2001; Spencer, 1999) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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