Functionalist Approaches to Social Stratification

1. Functionalist Approaches to Social Stratification Dan DeHanas Todd Wilkens 02-02-04

2. What is Functionalism? An initial answer comes from Stinchcombe: In functionalism “the consequences of some behavior or social arrangement are essential elements of the causes of that behavior”

3. Consequences • A consequential (functional) explanation: Q: Why did the chicken cross the road? A: To get to the other side. • The preferred consequence for the Chicken was to be on the other side of the road • This consequencecaused the chicken to cross the road

4. Reverse Causation • Chicken crossing road an example of ends causing means • Many examples of reverse causation in biological feedback systems, in organizational planning, etc.

5. Homeostasis • In a functional explanation, if desired consequence is arrived at, often the individual or system will try to remain there • This trend to homeostasis resembles how the human body maintains constant internal conditions (such as temperature)

6. Equifinality • Functional explanations are also marked by equifinality • Equifinality means equivalent consequences. When a set of varied behaviors lead to the same outcome, seek a functional explanation.

7. Equifinality: Example • Stinchcombe: In different societies and circumstances, someone usually takes a “father role” in a child’s life • This can be a biological father, mother’s brother, grandfather, etc. • The variety of means to a single consequence suggests a functional purpose of the father role

8. Social Evolution • Functionalism generally entails social evolution, the system changing as more “functional” aspects survive and thrive • Homeostasis, evolution, father role: functionalist metaphors are often from biology or anthropology. They seek to ground sociology in universal, scientific explanations.

9. Functionalism: A Summary • Consequences • Reverse causation • Homeostasis • Evolution • Equifinality

10. Does society require certain roles/positions?

11. Davis’s necessary functions • Maintenance of the population • Provision of the nutriment • Protection against injury • Reproduction of new organisms • Division of function among population • Solidarity of the group • Motivation of contact between members • Motivation of mutual tolerance and resistance to outsiders • Perpetuation of the social system

12. Tumin’s necessary functions “As we look at human groups the world over we see that certain groups share in common the fact that all the activities in which they engage can be shown to function in the final analysis • to maintain the biologic functioning of the group members; • to reproduce new members for the group; • to socialize new members into functioning adults; • to produce and distribute goods and services necessary to life; • to maintain order within the group; and • to define the 'meaning of life' and maintain the motivation to survive and engage in the activities necessary for survival.”

13. The Functional Necessity of Stratification: Davis & Moore • No society is classless: Davis & Moore (1945) sought a functional explanation • They argue that stratification serves the necessary function of filling important positions in society with qualified persons • Explain both universal and variable aspects of stratification

14. D&M’s Stratification (in Tumin) • Some positions are more important than others. • Only a small number of people have talents for these positions. • Training requires sacrifice. • To encourage this sacrifice, the positions must offer privileged treatment. • Privileges are access to scarce resources. • Differences in privileges  differences in prestige & esteem. This is institutionalized inequality. • Thus, stratification is positively functional and inevitable.

15. Stratification in Society’sPrimary Functions • Religion: Integrates beliefs, forms common goals. Priests manufacture their image. • Gov’t: Necessary for order, implies authority. • Wealth, Property, Labor: Index prestige. • Technical Knowledge: Finding means to goals. Requires knowledge and training.

16. Variation in Systems of Strat. • D&M argue for composite type classifications • Stage of development, size, and relationship to other societies are important determining factors • Societal Types vary by degree of: 1) Specialization, 2) Functional Emphasis, 3) Invidious Differences, 4) Opportunity, and 5) Stratum Solidarity • An example under their scheme would be a “Specialized, Theocratic, Inequalitarian, Immobile, Class-Organized Society”

17. Tumin’s responseto Davis & Moore

18. D&M’s Functionalist Points • Some positions are more important than others. • Only a small number of people have talents for these positions. • Training requires sacrifice. • To encourage this sacrifice, the positions must offer privileged treatment. • Privileges are access to scarce resources. • Differences in privileges  differences in prestige & esteem. This is institutionalized inequality. • Thus, stratification is positively functional and inevitable.

19. 1) Some positions more important… Based on the idea of “survival value” • Minimal vs. maximal survival • Leads to a tautology • How to make judgments of greater or lesser functionality?

20. 2) Limited number of talented people… How well does a society know what talent exists? Stratified societies present obstacles to discovery of talent. • Access to education depends on wealth of parents • Unequal rewards in one generation  unequal motivation in the next • Elites restrict access to privilege Hinders society by limiting the discovery and training of important personnel.

21. 3) Training requires sacrifice… “Sacrifice” is a rationalization of privileged treatment. Sacrifices: • Monetary • Parents often finance education • Make back more over a career • Untrained workers accrue responsibilities and expenses before those being trained. • Psychic and spiritual rewards. Imagine a society where training costs are born by society as a whole so that rewards can be equal.

22. 4) Positions must offer privilege… Scarce and desired goods are not the only possible rewards for “sacrifice” and work. • “Joy in work”. • Social duty. Imagine a society with different rewards. For example, a system of norms where doing your job is simply the morally right thing to do.

23. 5) Three kinds of rewards… • No problem with the classification system: • Sustenance and comfort • Humor and diversion • Self respect and ego expansion • However, there is no evidence that a reward system must include all three. For example, there is considerable “plasticity” in reward systems among different cultures.

24. 6) Difference in privilege  stratification Difference in prestige does not have to lead to stratification. For example, differences in prestige between the old and the young does not lead to stratification.

25. 7) Stratification is positive and inevitable Tumin has already shown many ways in which stratification is not positive. It is also not inevitable. Imagine a society where everyone is as socially worthy as everyone else as long as they do their jobs conscientiously. While some positions require more power and property, these could be defined as resources rather than rewards.

26. Dysfunctions of Stratification • Limits discovery of talent • Limits the expansion of productive resources (b/c of #1) • Elites have power to establish ideology that rationalizes the status quo. • Distributes “favorable self-image” unequally within a society • Encourages hostility, suspicion, and distrust among the different strata

27. Dysfunctions of Stratification (cont’d.) • Reduces feelings of membership within society through positions on the “prestige ladder” • Reduces loyalty (b/c of #6) • Reduces motivation to participate (b/c of #6)

28. Simpson and Stinchcombe:In defense of functionalism

29. Functional Stratification Revised: Simpson (1) • Simpson admits weaknesses in D&M’s functional explanation, suggesting revisions • Introduces demand-supply analysis: Society’s functional system of needs and rewards may not be clear, but for every social position supplied there is clearly someone demanding that good or service

30. Functional Stratification Revised: Simpson (2) • Simpson also adds other nuances to the theory: • Greater technological efficiency creates a surplus that allows tertiary job sector (services) to grow in size and diversity • People in higher positions have greater ability to reward, so privilege tends to propagate privilege

31. Functional Stratification Revised: Simpson (3) • Simpson also introduces cultural and historical aspects of stratification: • Halo Effect • History of Positions • Custom Do Simpson’s revisions redeem the flawed aspects of D&M’s original theory?

32. Stinchcombe, Conservative Nature of Functionalism • Many confusions “derive from a feeling that functional arguments assert that homeostatic variables constitute a list of good things about societies, and that focusing on the positive consequences of existing institutions tends in a conservative direction.” (p 91) • This relationship is not logically necessary.

33. Stinchcombe, Conservative Nature of Functionalism cont’d. • Because a homeostatic variable is maintained merely means that there are forces maintaining it, not that these causal forces only maintain good things.

34. Necessary vs. Unnecessary Lenski & Fischer

35. Lenski and Socialist Nations • Looking at socialist experiments with unstratified societies can inform stratification theory. • Socialist experiments failed, therefore institutionalized inequality is necessary.

36. Failures (Lenski cont’d.) • Massive political inequality. • Stagnating economies due to problems with motivation. • No change in human nature.

37. Fischer, et al and America Explaining inequality in America raises two questions: • Who gets ahead and who falls behind? This depends primarily on social context. • What determines the rewards for getting ahead or falling behind? This depends primarily on policy decisions. Both are capable of changing, therefore, the current system of stratification is not necessary.