E-Business (6): Strategy 电子商务 (6): 战略

E-Business (6): Strategy电子商务 (6): 战略 Andreas S. Weigend, PhD韋思岸教授 SJTU Dec 2004 Content 内容 • First-mover issues先动者问题 • Drivers of lock-in 锁定动因 • Tippy markets, positive feedback倾斜的市场，正面的反馈 • Demand-side vs supply-side economies of scale需求方与供给方的规模经济

Does a first-mover have an advantage?先动者具有优势吗？ • Disadvantages of being the first to market首先进入市场的劣势 • Market may be poorly understood对市场的了解可能不够 • Product creation may be inefficient产品生产可能效率低下 • Product/service may be unreliable, unfamiliar产品/服务可能不可靠、不熟悉 • Market may not have enough demand as yet市场可能还没有足够的需求 • Nature of competition/substitutes may not be clear竞争/替代品本质可能还不够明朗 • So, when is speed advantageous?那么，什么时候速度才是优势？ • When the first mover can lock-in customers当先动者可以锁定客户 • When the size of one’s customer base increases the value of the offer 当客户基础规模在一段时间内提高了产品/服务的价值 • When entry by competitors can be deterred by high fixed investments当高额固定投资能够制约竞争对手进入 • Also – large market 还有-大型市场 Lock-in + positive feedback + high fixed costs = increasing returns 锁定＋正面反馈＋高固定成本＝递增收益

Lock-in: Overview锁定：概览 Computers计算机 Across brands: Mac to PC • Buying new peripherals • Buying new software • Converting all Mac files to PC-compatible files • Learning how to use the new OS - getting used to the new UI, figuring out what the mouse does when you right-click, double-click, what the control and function keys do... • Finding a new ‘support group’ 品牌间：从Mac到PC • 购买新的外围设备 • 购买新软件 • 将所有Mac文件转换到PC兼容文件 • 学习如何使用新操作系统－熟悉新的用户界面，了解右击、双击时鼠标的作用，以及控制键和功能键的作用… • 找到新的“支持小组” Upgrade: any computer to any other • Copying files, reinstalling software • Shortcuts, bookmarks,… • Getting used to the feel/layout of the new keyboard 升级：从任何计算机到其他计算机 • 复制文件、重新安装软件 • 快捷键、书签… • 熟悉新键盘的感觉/布局 Switching computers vs cars转换计算机与转换汽车 Automobiles汽车 Across brands: Honda to BMW • Finding a new service shop • Finding where to get spare parts • Buying new accessories/toolkit • Adapting to the new dashboard, figuring out where all the controls, switches and levers are 品牌间：从本田到宝马 • 找到新的服务点 • 找到零配件供应点 • 购买新附件/工具包 • 适应新仪表盘，了解所有控制件、开关和操作杆的位置 Upgrade: any car to any other • Getting license plates, registration, insurance, spending time at DMV/AAA • Getting used to 'how the car drives' (maybe this is a little less if you buy a car of the same brand and model?) 升级：从任何汽车到其他汽车 • 取得牌照，进行登记，购买保险，向机动车辆管理局/美国汽车协会进行咨询 • 熟悉“汽车如何驾驶”（如果购买的是同一品牌、同一型号，则或许就不必花太多时间）

Lock-in: Overview锁定：概览 Switching costs in the Mac-PC example Mac－PC例子中的转换成本 • Buying new peripherals (OS-specific)购买新的外围设备（针对操作系统） • Buying new software (OS-specific)购买新软件（针对操作系统） • Converting your Mac files to PC-compatible files (OS-specific)将所有Mac文件转换到PC兼容文件（针对操作系统） • Learning how to use the new OS (OS-specific)学习如何使用新操作系统（针对操作系统） • Finding a new ‘support group’ (OS-specific)找到新的“支持小组” （针对操作系统） Switching from a HP to a Gateway PC从惠普转到Gateway个人电脑 • Microsoft makes more money than HP when one buys a HP PC当消费者购买一台康柏个人电脑时微软赚取的利润要超过康柏 The ‘piece’ of the product that drives switching costs seems to get most of the margins 导致转换成本升高的产品“组件”看来获取了绝大部分利润

Lock-in: Overview锁定：概览 • Switching cost: Cost borne by customer when switching from one ‘supplier’ to another • Switching brands • Switching technologies • Switching vendors • The costs here are distinct from • Differences in price • Differences in product quality • High switching costs  Lock-in • 转换成本：当客户从一家“供应商”转向另一家时所承担的成本 • 转换品牌 • 转换技术 • 转换销售商 • 在此，成本不同于 • 价格差距 • 产品质量差距 • 高转换成本  锁定 Price one can charge = (quality & competition adjusted price) + (switching cost) 商家可以设定的价格＝（质量和竞争调整价格）＋（转换成本）

Lock-in: Overview锁定：概览 Brand Selection 品牌选择 Lock-In锁定 Sampling试样 Entrenchment 稳住

Sources of lock-in锁定的来源 Type of Lock-In Switching Costs Contractual Commitment Compensatory damages 锁定类型转换成本合同约定违约金 Durable purchase Replacement costs, complementary products 持久购买更换成本补充性产品 Brand-specific learning Interface learning, corporate re-training 特定品牌学习界面学习、公司再培训 Information and databases Cost of transfer, re-creation, imperfections 转移成本、再创造、信息和数据库不完善时间、精力、搜索成本不确定性成本 Search costs Cost of time, attention, uncertainty Loyalty programs Lost accumulated benefits 忠诚度计划累计利益丧失

Search Costs搜索成本 Drivers • Actually finding new supplier (attention, time, evaluation) • Aversion to uncertainty from unknown alternatives (loss of knowledge gained from experience) Pattern of lock-in • Customer invests in finding a supplier • Customer evaluates and understands quality of supplier • Customer pays premium for current supplier, trading off cost of search against higher prices Supplier strategies • Pay special attention to first-time customers • Highlight reductions in uncertainty 动因 • 确实找到新的供应商（精力、时间、评估） • 回避未知选择所引起的不确定性（失去根据经验所得的知识）锁定方式 • 客户花钱寻找供应商 • 客户评估和了解供应商的质量 • 客户为现有供应商支付溢价，使搜索成本与更高价格相抵供应商战略 • 特别关注首次客户 • 强调不确定性的减少

Brand-specific training特定品牌培训 Drivers • Learning how to use product • Training employees Pattern of lock-in • Customer invests in learning to use product/interface • Customer becomes adept at usage (increases with time) • Customer sticks with product to avoid re-learning • Company standardizes product to reduce training costs Supplier strategies • Reduce learning barriers to adoption • Consciously design-in learning over time 动因 • 学习如何使用产品 • 培训员工锁定方式 • 客户花钱学习如何使用产品/界面 • 客户精于产品的使用（与日俱增） • 客户坚持使用该产品以避免重新学习 • 公司实现产品标准化以降低培训成本供应商战略 • 减少接纳的学习障碍 • 有意识地在产品中设计长期学习程序

Information and Databases信息与数据库 Drivers • Transferring product-specific information/files/media (actual transfer, imperfect transfer, re-creation) Pattern of lock-in • Customer invests in product • Customer stores/gathers product-specific information with use (increases with time) • Customer stays with existing product to avoid transfer costs Supplier strategies • Actively encourage informational investment, offering convenience, cost reductions in return • Build interfaces to your competitors’ products • Offer free conversion tools 动因 • 转移特定产品的信息/文件/媒介（实际转移、不完全转移、再创造）锁定方式 • 客户投资于产品 • 客户收集特定产品的使用信息（与日俱增） • 客户坚持使用现有产品以避免转移成本供应商战略 • 积极鼓励信息投资，产品方便性及成本降低 • 建立与竞争对手产品的界面

Lock-in: Microsoft Passport锁定：微软通行证 So software lock-in,now informationlock-in

Lock-in: Microsoft Passport锁定：微软通行证

Summary • First mover particularly important if lock-in likely • Lock-in is powerful, can be quantified • Setting standards (VCRs) • Profit margin related to lock-in • Different sources of lock-in • Weak: Loyalty, contractual • Strong: Complementary assets (tangible: peripherals, other software, intangible: information and data), learning / search) • Ex: Phone number switching vs handset switching • Strategy to get to lock in • Conversion (free tools) • Convenience (Microsoft passport)

Managing lock-in管理锁定 Attract the right customers吸引合适的客户 Entrench them稳住他们 Leverage your installed base利用客户基础 Isolate and target the buyers with high switching costs Look for buyers with a high sphere of influence (connected, credible) 以高转换成本来孤立和瞄准购买者寻找影响力范围较大的购买者（有联系、可靠）在客户设计中考虑使用的逐级方便性，信息投资强调不确定性的降低及投资的价值 Design-in gradual ease of use, informational investments Highlight reductions in uncertainty, value from their investments Up-sell complements, premium services (own/partners) Sensibly sell access to your installed base 增加销售辅件，溢价服务（自己/合作伙伴）明智地出售有关客户基础的联系资料

Positive Feedback: Overview正面反馈：概览 • Positive feedback: when a firm becomes successful, its past and current success make it likely to succeed in the future • ‘…success feeds on itself, the strong get stronger…’ • When does this happen: • More customers -> lower unit cost (supply-side economies of scale) • More customers -> larger ‘network’ -> more valuable product (demand-side economies of scale) • Products which have demand-side economies of scale are most likely to exhibit positive feedback. • If the positive feedback is strong enough, it leads to a single firm or product dominating the market (‘winner take all’). • Introducing a new product is difficult in a market with positive feedback, because of the ‘collective switching costs’ that need to be overcome • 正面反馈：当一家企业获得成功时，它过去和现在的成功也注定了未来的成功 • ‘…成功自养、强者更强’ • 何时会这样： • 客户增加 -> 单位成本降低（供应方规模经济） • 客户增加 -> ‘网络’扩大 -> 产品价值提高（需求方规模经济） • 具有需求方规模经济的产品更可能体现出正面反馈 • 如果正面反馈足够强，则会使单一企业或产品主导市场（‘赢者通吃’） • 在有正面反馈的市场中引入新产品较为困难，因为需要克服“集体转换成本”

Tippy markets倾斜市场 PRODUCT A 产品 A PRODUCT B 产品 B

Scale • Supply-side economies of scale • High fixed cost, low marginal cost • The more you sell, the higher the per-item profit IF NETWORK EFFECTS / POSITIVE FEEDBACK, THEN: • Demand-side economies of scale • Customers will chose product which already has many people • Effect of Web / EB?

Demand-side economies of scale需求方规模经济 • 商品消费量增多 –> 单位价值提高 • 网络效应、网络外延性 • 网络产品：显示出明显的网络外延性的产品 • More units consumed –> higher value per unit • Network effects, network externalities • Network product: product that displays significant network externalities value to each user 提供给每位客户的价值 number of users用户数量 Linkages can be physical or virtual 联系可以是实际的也可是虚拟的

Demand-side economies of scale?需求方规模经济？ ICQ SMS

Sources of demand-side economies of scale需求方规模经济的一些源泉 • Product is for person-to-person communication • telephone, fax machine, email, Instant Messenger, ICQ • Value depends on number of suppliers/partners • Trading exchanges • Value depends on the quality and variety of complementary assets • Software->OS: Windows, Mac OS, Playstation • Medium->device: CD players • Value relies on the volume of user-generated content • WWW, online communities • Output/information needs to be shared across users • Acrobat, Excel, Word, PowerPoint • 产品用于人际交流 • 电话、传真机、电子邮件、Instant Messenger, ICQ • 价值取决于供应商/合作伙伴的数量 • 在线交易平台 • 价值取决于互补性资产的质量和多样性 • 软件->操作系统：视窗、 Mac操作系统、 Playstation • 媒体->设备： CD播放机 • 价值依赖于用户制造内容的数量 • 万维网、在线社区 • 输出/信息需要被用户共享 • Acrobat, Excel, Word, PowerPoint

Openness vs. Control 开放性与控制 Control: Ensure high profit margins, face an uphill task of getting to critical mass 控制：保证高利润率，面临一个达到临界数量的艰巨任务 Your share of industry value 你的行业价值份额 Openness: Facilitate rapid adoption, but face difficulty in keeping margins high 开放性：有助于快速普及，但在保持高利润率上存在困难 Total value added to industry行业的总增加值 A firm benefits from producing a network product if it 企业可以从网络产品生产中受益，只要： • Is the only supplier of the product (control) 企业是该产品的唯一供应商（控制） • Tries to get a very large user base rapidly (openness)企业力图快速获取一个巨大的用户基础（开放性） However:然而： • Adoption is more rapid with open standards若实行开放标准，则产品普及会更快 • Profit margins are much higher with proprietary standards若实行专有标准，则利润率会更高 Ideal?理想状态？

Strategy and the Internet战略与互联网 • Over time, profitability is determined by industry structure and competitive advantage • Industry structure (and the profitability of the average competitor) are shaped by five forces: • Barriers to entry • Intensity of intra-industry competition • Bargaining power of suppliers • Bargaining power of buyers (and channels) • Threat of substitute products and services • Competitive advantage (and above-average profits) can be attained by: • Operational effectiveness • Product differentiation • Niche focus 用一张幻灯片来简要介绍波特理论 • 从长期而言，获利能力取决于行业结构和竞争优势 • 行业结构（和一般竞争者的获利能力）的形成取决于五大力量： • 进入壁垒 • 行业内竞争的激烈程度 • 供应商的议价能力 • 买方（和渠道）的议价能力 • 替代产品和服务的威胁 • 竞争优势（和超常利润）的获得可以借助： • 经营效力 • 产品差异化 • 关注缝隙市场

The Internet and Industry Structure互联网与行业结构 lowhigh小大 Threat of substitutes 替代品威胁 Intra-industry rivalry 行业内竞争 Bargaining power of suppliers 供应商议价能力 Bargaining power of channels end-users 渠道最终用户的议价能力弱强弱强弱强 lowhigh lowhigh Barriers to entry 进入壁垒 lowhigh 低高

Impact of reducing search costs降低搜索成本的影响 increase?增大？ Threat of substitutes 替代品威胁 Intra-industry rivalry 行业内竞争 Bargaining power of suppliers 供应商议价能力 Bargaining power of channels end-users 渠道最终用户的议价能力 reduce?减弱? increase 增强 increase增强 Barriers to entry 进入壁垒 reduce降低

Impact of switching costs and lock-in转换成本和锁定的影响 reduce?减小？ Threat of substitutes 替代品威胁 Intra-industry rivalry 行业内竞争 Bargaining power of suppliers 供应商议价能力 Bargaining power of channels end-users 渠道最终用户的议价能力 reduce减弱 reduce减弱（in conjunction with higher concentration）（同时集中度升高） reduce减弱 Barriers to entry 进入壁垒 increase升高

Impact of demand-side economies of scale需求方规模经济的影响 reduce减小 Threat of substitutes 替代品威胁 Intra-industry rivalry 行业内竞争 Bargaining power of suppliers 供应商议价能力 Bargaining power of channels end-users 渠道最终用户的议价能力 reduce减弱 reduce减弱（in conjunction with higher concentration）（同时集中度升高） reduce减弱 Barriers to entry 进入壁垒 increase升高

Barriers to Entry进入壁垒 • Demand-side economies of scale • Larger networks of complementary partnerships • Internet-enabled vertical disintegration • Easier access to channels of distribution • Changes in cost structure (fixed vs. variable) • Changes in switching costs (information, learning, search) • Changes in level of product differentiation • 需求方规模经济 • 互补性合作网络扩大 • 互联网驱动的纵向解体 • 进入分销渠道更方便 • 成本结构的变化（固定与可变） • 转换成本的变化（信息、学习、搜索） • 产品差异化水平的变化 Examples例子 • Auctions拍卖 • Books/CD retailing图书/CD零售 • Enterprise software企业软件 • Music production音乐制作 lowhigh 低高

Intra-Industry Competition行业内竞争 • Demand-side economies of scale • Number of competitors, their relative size • Internet-enabled vertical disintegration • Reduction in operational differentiation • Smoothing of capacity creation • Level of strategic stakes in e-commerce operations • Changes in cost structure (fixed vs. variable) • Changes in switching costs (information, learning, search) • Changes in level of product differentiation • 需求方规模经济 • 竞争对手数量以及他们的相对规模 • 互联网驱动的纵向解体 • 降低经营差异化 • 平衡生产能力创造 • 电子商务经营中的战略风险水平 • 成本结构的变化（固定与可变） • 转换成本的变化（信息、学习、搜索） • 产品差异化程度的变化 Examples • Books/CD retailing • Electronics/PC manufacturing • Online brokerage 例子图书/CD 零售电子产品/个人电脑生产在线经纪 lowhigh 弱强

Bargaining power of suppliers供应商的议价能力 • Demand-side economies of scale需求方规模经济 • Internet-enabled vertical disintegration互联网驱动的纵向解体 • Level of operational procurement search costs经营采购搜索成本水平 • Changes in switching costs (information, learning, search)转换成本的变化（信息、学习、搜索） • Changes in component differentiation (standardization)组件差异化的变化（标准化） Examples例子 • Auto manufacturing汽车制造 • Electronics retailing 电子产品零售 • Cell-phone/PDA manufacturing 手机/掌上电脑生产 lowhigh弱强

Bargaining power of buyers买方的议价能力 • Demand-side economies of scale (collective switching costs) • Buyer scale relative to firm (effects of demand aggregation) • Level of operational buyer search costs • Changes in switching costs (information, learning, search) • Changes in product differentiation • personalization, mass customization • 需求方规模经济（集体转换成本） • 相对企业的买方规模（需求集成效应） • 买方经营搜索成本水平 • 转换成本的变化（信息、学习、搜索） • 产品差异化的变化 • 个性化、批量定制生产 Examples例子 • Mobshop (and Mercata) Mobshop (和Mercata) • Energy procurement能源采购 • Online banking在线银行 • Electronics manufacturing Channels, complements电子产品生产渠道、辅件 lowhigh弱强

Complementary or cannibalizing?互补还是鲸吞？ • Disadvantages of being the first to market • Market may be poorly understood • Product creation may be inefficient • Product/service may be unreliable, unfamiliar • Market may not have enough demand as yet • Nature of competition/substitutes may not be clear • So, when is speed advantageous? • 首先进入市场的劣势 • 对市场的了解可能不够 • 产品生产可能效率低下 • 产品/服务可能不可靠、不熟悉 • 市场可能还没有足够的需求 • 竞争/替代品本质可能还不够明朗 • 那么，什么时候速度才是优势？ • When the first mover can lock-in customers • When the size of one’s customer base increases the value of the offer over time • When entry by competitors can be deterred by high fixed investments • Also – large market, manageable hazards • 当先动者可以锁定客户 • 当客户基础规模在一段时间内提高了产品/服务的价值 • 当高额固定投资能够制约竞争对手进入 • 还有-大型市场，可管理的危险 Lock-in + positive feedback + high fixed costs = increasing returns 锁定＋正面反馈＋高固定成本＝递增收益

Does a first-mover have an advantage?先动者具有优势吗？ • Disadvantages of being the first to market首先进入市场的劣势 Market may be poorly understood 对市场的了解可能不够 • Product creation may be inefficient 产品生产可能效率低下 • Product/service may be unreliable, unfamiliar 产品/服务可能不可靠、不熟悉 • Market may not have enough demand as yet 市场可能还没有足够的需求 • Nature of competition/substitutes may not be clear 竞争/替代品本质可能还不够明朗 • So, when is speed advantageous? 那么，什么时候速度才是优势？ • When the first mover can lock-in customers当先动者可以锁定客户 • When the size of one’s customer base increases the value of the offer 当客户基础规模能提高产品/服务的价值 • When entry by competitors can be deterred by high fixed investments当高额固定投资能够制约竞争对手进入 • Also – large market还有-存在大型市场 Lock-in + positive feedback + high fixed costs = increasing returns 锁定＋正面反馈＋高固定成本＝递增收益 10-2

Lock-in: Overview锁定：概览 Computers计算机 Across brands: Mac to PC • Buying new peripherals • Buying new software • Converting all Mac files to PC-compatible files • Learning how to use the new OS - getting used to the new UI, figuring out what the mouse does when you right-click, double-click, what the control and function keys do... • Finding a new ‘support group’ 品牌间：从Mac到PC • 购买新的外围设备 • 购买新软件 • 将所有Mac文件转换到PC兼容文件 • 学习如何使用新操作系统－熟悉新的用户界面，了解右击、双击时鼠标的作用，以及控制键和功能键的作用… • 找到新的“支持小组” Upgrade: any computer to any other • Copying files, reinstalling software • Shortcuts, bookmarks,… • Getting used to the feel/layout of the new keyboard 升级：从任何计算机到其他计算机 • 复制文件、重新安装软件 • 快捷键、书签… • 熟悉新键盘的感觉/布局 Switching cars vs. switching computers转换汽车与转换计算机 Automobiles汽车 Across brands: Honda to BMW • Finding a new service shop • Finding where to get spare parts • Buying new accessories/toolkit • Adapting to the new dashboard, figuring out where all the controls, switches and levers are 品牌间：从本田到宝马 • 找到新的服务点 • 找到零配件供应点 • 购买新附件/工具包 • 适应新仪表盘，了解所有控制件、开关和操作杆的位置 Upgrade: any car to any other • Getting license plates, registration, insurance, spending time at DMV/AAA • Getting used to 'how the car drives' (maybe this is a little less if you buy a car of the same brand and model?) 升级：从任何汽车到其他汽车 • 取得牌照，进行登记，购买保险，向机动车辆管理局/美国汽车协会进行咨询 • 熟悉“汽车如何驾驶”（如果购买的是同一品牌、同一型号，则或许就不必花太多时间）

Lock-in: Overview锁定：概览 Switching costs in the Mac-PC example Mac－PC例子中的转换成本 • Buying new peripherals (OS-specific)购买新的外围设备（针对操作系统） • Buying new software (OS-specific)购买新软件（针对操作系统） • Converting your Mac files to PC-compatible files (OS-specific) 将所有Mac文件转换到PC兼容文件（针对操作系统） • Learning how to use the new OS (OS-specific)学习如何使用新操作系统（针对操作系统） • Finding a new ‘support group’ (OS-specific)找到新的“支持小组” （针对操作系统） Switching from a HP to a Gateway PC从惠普转到Gateway个人电脑 • Microsoft makes more money than HP when one buys a HP PC 当消费者购买一台惠普个人电脑时，微软赚取的利润要超过惠普 The ‘piece’ of the product that drives switching costs seems to get most of the margins 导致转换成本升高的产品“组件”看来获取了绝大部分利润

锁定：概览 • Switching cost: Cost borne by customer when switching from one ‘supplier’ to another • Switching brands • Switching technologies • Switching vendors • The costs here are distinct from • Differences in price • Differences in product quality • High switching costs  Lock-in • 转换成本：当客户从一家“供应商”转向另一家时所承担的成本 • 转换品牌 • 转换技术 • 转换销售商 • 在此，成本不同于 • 价格差距 • 产品质量差距 • 高转换成本  锁定 Price one can charge = (quality & competition adjusted price) + (switching cost) 商家可以设定的价格＝（质量和竞争调整价格）＋（转换成本）

Lock-in: Overview锁定：概览 Brand Selection 品牌选择 Lock-In锁定 Sampling试样 Entrenchment 稳住

Sources of lock-in锁定的来源 Type of Lock-In Switching Costs Contractual Commitment Compensatory damages 锁定类型转换成本合同约定违约金 Durable purchase Replacement costs, complementary products 持久购买更换成本补充性产品 Brand-specific learning Interface learning, corporate re-training 特定品牌学习界面学习、公司再培训 Information and databases Cost of transfer, re-creation, imperfections 转移成本、再创造、信息和数据库不完善时间、精力、搜索成本不确定性成本 Search costs Cost of time, attention, uncertainty Loyalty programs Lost accumulated benefits 忠诚度计划累计利益丧失

Search Costs搜索成本 Drivers • Actually finding new supplier (attention, time, evaluation) • Aversion to uncertainty from unknown alternatives (loss of knowledge gained from experience) Pattern of lock-in • Customer invests in finding a supplier • Customer evaluates and understands quality of supplier • Customer pays premium for current supplier, trading off cost of search against higher prices Supplier strategies • Pay special attention to first-time customers • Highlight reductions in uncertainty 动因 • 确实找到新的供应商（精力、时间、评估） • 回避未知选择所引起的不确定性（失去根据经验所得的知识）锁定方式 • 客户花钱寻找供应商 • 客户评估和了解供应商的质量 • 客户为现有供应商支付溢价，使搜索成本与更高价格相抵供应商战略 • 特别关注首次客户 • 强调不确定性的减少

Brand-specific training特定品牌培训 Drivers • Learning how to use product • Training employees Pattern of lock-in • Customer invests in learning to use product/interface • Customer becomes adept at usage (increases with time) • Customer sticks with product to avoid re-learning • Company standardizes product to reduce training costs Supplier strategies • Reduce learning barriers to adoption • Consciously design-in learning over time 动因 • 学习如何使用产品 • 培训员工锁定方式 • 客户花钱学习如何使用产品/界面 • 客户精于产品的使用（与日俱增） • 客户坚持使用该产品以避免重新学习 • 公司实现产品标准化以降低培训成本供应商战略 • 减少接纳的学习障碍 • 有意识地在产品中设计长期学习程序

Information and Databases信息与数据库 Drivers • Transferring product-specific information/files/media (actual transfer, imperfect transfer, re-creation) Pattern of lock-in • Customer invests in product • Customer stores/gathers product-specific information with use (increases with time) • Customer stays with existing product to avoid transfer costs Supplier strategies • Actively encourage informational investment, offering convenience, cost reductions in return • Build interfaces to your competitors’ products • Offer free conversion tools 动因 • 转移特定产品的信息/文件/媒介（实际转移、不完全转移、再创造）锁定方式 • 客户投资于产品 • 客户收集特定产品的使用信息（与日俱增） • 客户坚持使用现有产品以避免转移成本供应商战略 • 积极鼓励信息投资，以提供便利及成本降低作为回报 • 建立与竞争对手产品相同的界面 • 提供免费转换工具

Lock-in: Microsoft Passport锁定：微软通行证 • So software lock-in,now informationlock-in首先是软件锁定，现在是信息锁定

E-Business (6): Strategy 电子商务 (6): 战略