Moral reasoning & Ethical theories

1. College of Engineering of WadiAldawassir Chapter 2 Moral reasoning&Ethical theories Ethics of Engineering

2. Objectives By the end of this chapter students will be able to: • Discover the engineers decision consequences to people; • Understand that Ethics and ethical reasoning guide decision-making.

3. Introduction • When we say that someone is thinking ethically or resolving an ethical problem using moral reasoning, should this involve appeals to the theories of moral philosophers?

4. What is Morality? • It concerns conduct: right and wrong, good and bad, the rules that ought to be followed • It is associated with consequences to ourselves, others, and the environment • The “right” or “good” is linked to value judgments, generally thought to promote fairness, health, and safety while minimizing injustice

5. What is Morality? • Ethical dilemmas in management are not simple choices between “right” and “wrong”. • They are complex judgments on the balance between: • economic performance and • social performance • They are complicated by the multiple alternatives, extended consequence, uncertain probabilities and career implications that are an inherent part of the decisions.

6. What is Morality? • How do we decide when face such issues. How do we determine what is “right” and “proper” and “just” in these and other instances? • Choosing between: • right and wrong for business manager • right vs. right is not always easy • On many occasion managers also choose between two wrongs (wrong vs. wrong)

7. What is Morality? • Managerial decision (or dilemmas) simply does not depend on "do the right thing", or "always tell the truth". On the surface one can argue that there is another right thing which is not done but in complex business situations the action is morally justified. • Mangers analyze the situation and find solution which is win - win for both the parties and most practical. • Application of ethical theories help them to justify their action.

8. Ethical theories • They attempt to provide perspective on moral responsibilities • Teleology • deontology • Utilitarianism • Rule-Utilitarianism • Act-Utilitarianism • Rights Ethics • Duty Ethics

9. Ethical TheoriesTeleology • The term teleology is derived from the Greek work “telos” which means, “end” or “purpose” • According to this theory the concept of right, wrong and duty are subordinated to the concept of end or purpose of the action. This is also called consequentialist theory. • This theory suggests that ethical reasoning concentrate on the consequenceof human action, and all actions are evaluated in terms of the extent to which they achieve desirable results.

10. Ethical TheoriesDeontology • The term deontology comes from the Greek Word “deon” means “duty” • According to the deontologist the rules and principles are crucial for guiding human action • They believe that ethical reasoning should concern activities that are rationally motivated and apply universally to all human action.

11. Ethical TheoriesDeontology • According to this theory, morality should not depend on our individual likings and disliking or on our abilities and opportunities: • 1) Always act in such a way that you can also will that the maxim of your action should become a universal law. The idea is very much like the golden rule – “Do unto others, as you would have them do unto you.” • 2) Or act so that you treat humanity, both in your own person and in that of another, always as an endand never merely as a means. • Thus morality is seen as being an objective requirement, independent of what anyone may want.

12. Ethical TheoriesUtilitarianism • Utility: An act or thing has utility for a person if it makes them happy or brings pleasure or decreases pain. • Utilitarianism: • The view that we ought to produce the most good for the most people, giving equal consideration to everyone affected • For the most part, we focus on the consequences of actions – with an eye toward maximizing happiness/utility.

13. Ethical TheoriesUtilitarianism • Rule-Utilitarianism is applying those rules that if generallyadopted would produce the most good for the most people • Act-Utilitarianismis applying rules in order to produce the most good for the most people involved in the particular situation  rules become at most rules of thumb (general rules)

14. Ethical TheoriesUtilitarianism (example) • The Act Utilitarian may allow rules to be used; but conceives of a rule like “Tell the Truth” as follows“Telling the truth is generally for the greatest general good” • The Rule Utilitarian conceive of this as :“It is for the greatest good if one always tell the truth”

15. Ethical Theories Utilitarianism & Theories of Good • Deeply satisfying pleasures mixed with some inevitable pains & a pattern of activities and relationships that one can affirm as valuable overall • no moral act (e.g., an act of stealing) or rule (e.g., “Keep your promises”) is intrinsically right or wrong

16. Ethical TheoriesRights Ethics • Rights Ethics - the view that human rights - not good consequences - are fundamental. • Acts of respect for human rights are obligatory, regardless of whether they always maximize good • Truthfulness important in terms of its contribution to liberty, especially within relationships based on trust • Complex in that there are many types of rights that may conflict and must be balanced

17. Ethical TheoriesRights Ethics (examples) • The right to life  • The right to liberty • The right to pursue happiness • The right to a lawyer • The right to freely practice a religion of choice • The right to express ideas or opinions with freedom as an individual • The right to freely live and travel within the country • The right to work  • The right to marry  • The right to free education • The right to join any peaceful parties or groups of choice • The right to be free from slavery • The right to not be tortured • The right to be treated as equal to others • The right to be considered to be innocent until proven guilty • The right to own property • …

18. Ethical TheoriesRights Ethics & Liberty Rights • Liberty Rights - places duties on other people not to interfere with one’s life. • a liberty right is a right which does not entail obligations on other parties • a person has a liberty right permitting him to do something only if there is no other person who has a claim right forbidding him from doing so

19. Ethical TheoriesRights Ethics & Liberty Rights Examples of Liberty Rights • Freedom of speech • The right to privacy • The right to be free from unreasonable searches of your home • The right to a fair court trial • The right to marry • The right to vote

20. Ethical TheoriesDuty Ethics • Duty Ethics - the focus on duties which correspondence to and sustain fundamental rights • List of duties based on respect for persons and belief in human capacity for moral autonomy • For example, if you have a right not to be deceived, then I have a duty not to deceive you. To deceive you is to undermine your ability to carry out your plans based on available truths and within relationships based on trust

21. Ethical TheoriesDuty Ethics - List of Duties (examples) • Kant • Be truthful • Be fair • Make reparation for harm done • Show gratitude for kindness extended • Seek to improve one’s own character and talents • Gert • Don’t • cause pain • disable • deprive of freedom • deprive of pleasure • deceive • cheat • Do • keep your promises • obey the law • do your duty

22. Ethical TheoriesDuty Ethics - A Closer Look at Duties • Are duties universally applicable and exceptionless? Is duty absolute? • What about when duties conflict with each other, e.g., “do not deceive” versus “protect innocent life” • Duties - those that have justified exceptions or limits

23. Moral Reasoning • The thinking processes involved in judgments about questions of right and wrong. • Moral reasoning is delimited by “...two moral perspectives that organize thinking in different ways: • Men: define morality in terms of justice.Males = typically a justice/rights orientation • Women: less in terms of rights and more in terms of standards of responsibility and care. • Females = care response orientation

24. Moral Reasoning Gilligan’s Perspective: • These orientations arise from rational experiences of inequality and attachment: • Girls attached to and identify with mothers • Boys attached to mothers and identify with fathers

25. Three Categories of Management Morality Moral manager Managerial ethical and moral principles Immoral manager Amoral manager

26. Characteristics of a Moral Manager • Dedicated to high standards of ethical behavior in • Own actions • How the company’s business is to be conducted • Considers it important to • Be a steward of ethical behavior • Demonstrate ethical leadership • Pursues business success • Within confines of both letter and spirit of laws • With a habit of operating well above what laws require

27. Characteristics of an Immoral Manager • Actively opposes ethical behavior in business • Willfully ignores ethical principles in making decisions • Views legal standards as barriers to overcome • Pursues own self-interests • Is an example of capitalistic greed • Ignores interests of others • Focuses only on bottom line – making one’s numbers • Will trample on others to avoid being trampled upon

28. Characteristics of an Intentionally Amoral Manager • Believes business and ethics should not be mixed since different rules apply to • Business activities • Other realms of life • Does not factor ethical considerations intoown actions since business activity liesoutside sphere of moral judgment • Views ethics as inappropriate fortough, competitive business world • Concept of right and wrong is lawyer-driven (what can we get by with without running afoul of the law)

29. Characteristics of an Unintentionally Amoral Manager • Is blind to or casual about ethics ofdecision-making and business actions • Displays lack of concern regardingwhether ethics applies to company actions • Sees self as well-intentioned or personally ethical • Typical beliefs • Do what is necessary to comply with laws and regulations • Government provides legal framework stating what society will put up with—if it is not illegal, it is allowed

30. What Are the Drivers of Unethical Strategies and Business Behavior? • The large numbers of immoral and amoral business people • Overzealous pursuit (السعي المفرط) of personal gain, wealth, and other selfish interests • Heavy pressures on company managersto meet or beat earnings targets • A company culture that places profits andgood performance ahead of ethical behavior

31. Overzealous Pursuit of Personal Gain, Wealth, and Selfish Interests • People obsessed with wealth accumulation, greed, power, and status often • Push ethical principles aside in their quest for self gain • Exhibit few qualms in doing whateveris necessary to achieve their goals • Look out for their own best interests • Have few scruples and ignore welfare of others • Engage in all kinds of unethicalstrategic maneuvers and behaviors

32. Heavy Pressures on Company Managers to Meet or Beat Earnings Targets • Managers often feel enormous pressure to do whatever it takes to deliver good financial performance • Actions often taken by managers • Cut costs wherever savings show up immediately • Squeeze extra sales out of early deliveries • Engage in short-term maneuvers to make the numbers • Stretch the rules further and further, untillimits of ethical conduct are overlooked • Executives feel pressure to hit performance targets since their compensation depends heavily on company performance • Fundamental problem with a “make the numbers” syndrome – Company does not serve its customers or shareholders well by placing top priority on the bottom line

33. Company Culture Places Profits and Good Performance Ahead of Ethical Behavior • In an ethically corrupt or amoral work climate,people have a company-approved license to • Ignore “what’s right” • Engage in most any behavior or employ mostany strategy they think they can get away with • Play down the relevance of ethical strategicactions and business conduct • Pressures to conform to the norms of the corporate culture can prompt otherwise honorable people to • Make ethical mistakes • Succumb to the many opportunities around them to engage in unethical practices

34. Why Should Company Strategies Be Ethical? • An unethical strategy • Is morally wrong • Reflects badly on the character of company personnel • An ethical strategy is • Good business • In the self-interest of shareholders

35. Case study • ISSUE #1: HEALTH AND SAFETY • RISKS: Danger to current and future generations from leakage of radio- isotopes used in nuclear power. • Plutonium-239 (half-life = 24,110 yrs) is a particularly toxic radio-isotope. • Normally, 10 half lives are required before a Pu-239 contaminated area is considered safe again, in the case of plutonium, roughly 250,000 years. • So if Pu leaked, due to an earthquake, it would cause a health risk for roughly 8000 generations!!

36. Case study ISSUE #1: HEALTH AND SAFETY RISKS, FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS: The possibility of medical science discovering a cure for cancer sometime in the current or next centuries adds uncertainty to the long-term health risks of leakages of radio-active isotopes.

37. Case study • ISSUE #1: HEALTH AND SAFETY RISKS, FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS: • The use of nuclear power may increase our knowledge of radioisotopes used for medical purposes (possible benefit?).

38. Case study CONSEQUENCES OF ALTERNATIVES TO NUCLEAR POWER. ISSUE #2: DEPLETION OF RESOURCES: Fossil fuels, oil, natural gas and coal, are non-renewable. These resources also affect the goal of health because of their impact on pollution and climate changes.

39. Case study CONSEQUENCES OF ALTERNATIVES TO NUCLEAR POWER. ISSUE #3: COMPARATIVE ECONOMIC COSTS OF RENEWABLE SOURCES. Renewable sources such as hydro-electric-power, wind power, solar power, geo-thermal heat, agricultural biomass and tides do not cause the environmental hazards that fossil-fuels do. But renewable sources must be balanced with the amount of energy needed to produce and maintain them and consequent environmental hazards. Currently, for example, the energy required to manufacture and install solar energy systems comes from fossil fuels.

40. Case study Reasoning • The kind of reasoning that goes on in such discussions involves certain goals such as, in this case, health, safety and biodiversity. • The reasoning then focuses on finding the best – or at least the reasonably better means for obtaining those goals.

41. Rule Good engineering, good business, and good ethics work together in the long run.