Exploring Memory: A Journey Through Information Processing

1. Human Memory It is good to have an end to journey towards; but it is the journey that matters, in the end. Ursula K. Le Gui

2. Memory • Process by which information is: • Acquired • Encoding • Stored in the brain • Storage • Later retrieved • Retrieval • Eventually (possibly) forgotten

3. Information-Processing Model of Memory • Computer as a model for our memory • Three types of memory • Sensory memory • Short-term memory (STM) • Long-term memory (LTM) • Can hold vast quantities of information for many years

4. Information-Processing Model of Memory Retrieval Stimulus Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory Attention Encoding Forgetting Forgetting Forgetting

5. Sensory Memory Sensory Input Sensory Memory • Stores all the stimuli that register on the senses • Lasts up to three seconds • Two types • Iconic memory • Visual • Usually lasts about 0.3 seconds • Echoic memory (we’ll come back to this)

6. Sensory Memory • Iconic memory • Visual • Usually lasts about 0.3 seconds • Echoic memory • Sensory memory for auditory input that lasts only 2 to 3 seconds • Why do we need sensory memory?

7. Short-term Memory • Function • Conscious processing of information • Attention is the key • Limits what info comes under the spotlight of short-term memory at any given time • AKA working memory Sensory Memory Working or Short-term Memory Attention Sensory Input

8. Memorize the following list of numbers: 1 8 1 2 1 9 4 1 1 7 7 6 1 4 9 2 2 0 0 1

9. Write down the numbers in order.

10. Now, try again… 1812 1941 1776 1492 2001

11. Short-term Memory • Limited capacity • Can hold 7 ± 2 items for about 20 seconds • Maintenance rehearsal • The use of repetition to keep info in short-term memory • CHUNK • Meaningful unit of information • Without rehearsal, we remember 4 ± 2 chunks • With rehearsal, we remember 7 ± 2 chunks • Ericsson & Chase (1982) 89319443492502157841668506120948888568772731418610546297480129497496592280

12. Long-term Memory • Once information passes from sensory to short-term memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory Retrieval Encoding Sensory Memory Attention Working or Short-term Memory Long-term memory Sensory Input

13. Semantic Categories Bus Truck Ambulance House Orange Fire Engine Fire Yellow Red Green Apples Cherry Sunrise Roses Daisies Clouds Sunsets Flowers

14. Long-term memory • Procedural (Implicit) • Memories of behaviors, skills, etc. • Demonstrated through behavior • Declarative (Explicit) • Memories of facts • Episodic – personal experiences tied to places & time • Semantic – general knowledge • Semantic network

16. Serial Positioning Effect • Serial Positioning Effect • Tendency to recall the beginning and the end of a list but not the middle. • Made up of two different effects • Primacy • Remembering the beginning of the list • Recency • Remembering the end of the list

17. 90 Percentage of words recalled 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Position of word in list Serial Positioning Effect

18. Long-term memory - Encoding • Maintenance rehearsal • Rote repitition • Elaborative rehearsal • A technique for transferring information into long-term memory by thinking about it in a deeper way • Levels of processing • Semantic or deep processing is more effective than visual or acoustic processing • Self-referent effect • By viewing new info as relevant to the self, we consider that info more fully and are better able to recall it

19. Improving Memory • Practice time • Distribute your studying over time • Depth of processing • Spend ‘quality’ time studying • Verbal mnemonics • Use rhyming or acronyms to reduce the amount of info to be stored

20. Improving Memory • Method of loci • Items to be recalled are mentally placed in familiar locations • Interference • Study right before sleeping & review all the material right before the exam • Allocate an uninterrupted chunk of time to one course • Context reinstatement • Try to study in the same environment & mood in which you will be taking the exam

21. Retrieval • Retrieval • Process that controls flow of information from long-term to working memory store • Explicit memory • The types of memory elicited through the conscious retrieval of recollections in response to direct questions • Implicit memory • A nonconscious recollection of a prior experience that is revealed indirectly, by its effects on performance

22. On the blanks in your packets, name the seven dwarfs from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.

23. Now on a separate piece of paper, please write which ones of the following are the names of the seven dwarfs in the Disney movie Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Goofy Bashful Sleepy Meanie Smarty Doc Scaredy Happy Dopey Angry Grumpy Sneezy Wheezy Crazy

24. Retrieval • Free-recall test • A type of explicit memory task in which a person must reproduce information without the benefit of external cues • Recognition task • A form of explicit memory retrieval in which items are presented to a person who must determine if they were previously encountered • Relearning method • Implicit memory, Compares time required to relearn material with the time used in the initial learning of the same material • Priming • Implicit memory, asks you to read or listen to material to see if it effects you future performance

25. Forgetting If we remembered everything, we should on most occasions be as ill off as if we remembered nothing. William James • Lack of encoding • Often, we don’t even encode the features necessary to ‘remember’ an object/event • Decay • Memory traces erode with the passage of time • No longer a valid theory of forgetting • Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924)

27. Forgetting is a result of some memories interfering with others Proactive interference Old memories interfere with ability to remember new memories Retroactive interference New memories interfere with ability to remember old memories Interference is stronger when material is similar Forgetting

28. Forgetting • Context-Dependent Memory • We are more successful at retrieving memories if we are in the same environment in which we stored them • State-Dependent Memory • We are more successful at retrieving memories if we are in the same mood as when we stored them

29. Forgetting • Repression • There are times when we are unable to remember painful past events • While there is no laboratory evidence for this, case studies suggest that memories can be repressed for a number of years and recovered in therapy

30. Memory Construction • Schema theory • Preconceptions about persons, objects, or events that bias the way new information is interpreted and recalled • Misinformation effect • The tendency to incorporate false postevent information into one’s memory of the event itself • Illusory memories • People sometimes create memories that are completely false

31. Ways that we Retain Information