Budget for Moral Education and Australian Values Conference

1. When the United States invaded Iraq in 2003, many public school teachers were forbidden to discuss the war in their classrooms. Such a restriction on free discussion seems outrageous in a liberal democracy. But, although free debate is rarely so directly forbidden, the suppression of discussion and critical thinking in our educational system is widespread. Usually it is accomplished by defining the curriculum so narrowly and specifically that genuinely controversial issues simply do not arise. Without controversial issues critical thinking is nonexistent or, at best, weak. Students are encouraged now and then to exercise a bit of critical thinking in science or mathematics as they try to solve word problems or think of alternative hypotheses, but such exercises are usually constrained tightly by the topic at hand and the limited knowledge of young students. Further, this sort of critical thinking does not challenge deeply held beliefs or ways of life. When the United States invaded Iraq in 2003, many public school teachers were forbidden to discuss the war in their classrooms. Such a restriction on free discussion seems outrageous in a liberal democracy. But, although free debate is rarely so directly forbidden, the suppression of discussion and critical thinking in our educational system is widespread. Usually it is accomplished by defining the curriculum so narrowly and specifically that genuinely controversial issues simply do not arise. Without controversial issues critical thinking is nonexistent or, at best, weak. Students are encouraged now and then to exercise a bit of critical thinking in science or mathematics as they try to solve word problems or think of alternative hypotheses, but such exercises are usually constrained tightly by the topic at hand and the limited knowledge of young students. Further, this sort of critical thinking does not challenge deeply held beliefs or ways of life.

2. When the United States invaded Iraq in 2003, many public school teachers were forbidden to discuss the war in their classrooms. Such a restriction on free discussion seems outrageous in a liberal democracy. But, although free debate is rarely so directly forbidden, the suppression of discussion and critical thinking in our educational system is widespread. Usually it is accomplished by defining the curriculum so narrowly and specifically that genuinely controversial issues simply do not arise. Without controversial issues critical thinking is nonexistent or, at best, weak. Students are encouraged now and then to exercise a bit of critical thinking in science or mathematics as they try to solve word problems or think of alternative hypotheses, but such exercises are usually constrained tightly by the topic at hand and the limited knowledge of young students. Further, this sort of critical thinking does not challenge deeply held beliefs or ways of life. When the United States invaded Iraq in 2003, many public school teachers were forbidden to discuss the war in their classrooms. Such a restriction on free discussion seems outrageous in a liberal democracy. But, although free debate is rarely so directly forbidden, the suppression of discussion and critical thinking in our educational system is widespread. Usually it is accomplished by defining the curriculum so narrowly and specifically that genuinely controversial issues simply do not arise. Without controversial issues critical thinking is nonexistent or, at best, weak. Students are encouraged now and then to exercise a bit of critical thinking in science or mathematics as they try to solve word problems or think of alternative hypotheses, but such exercises are usually constrained tightly by the topic at hand and the limited knowledge of young students. Further, this sort of critical thinking does not challenge deeply held beliefs or ways of life.

3. The neglect of topics that call forth critical and reflective thinking; pervades our system of education. Teachers study some psychology and are urged to use what they learn in classrooms, They use psychology on students but not with them. Teachers and students are rarely invited to turn a reflective eye on their own thought processes and work habits. In a passion to control students, parents and teachers often structure homework and study time, assign penalties for miss�ing deadlines, and preach lessons on the value of hard steady work. But teachers might instead encourage students to ask questions such as: When and under what conditions do I do my best work? Is it ever productive to stop thinking and just look or listen? Is it possible that a problem, topic, or potential product might "speak" to us or some�how reveal itself? Is it sometimes morally acceptable and creatively productive to do less than my best work? What does it mean, anyway, to be educated? � Why do we not teach critical lessons on these [such as, Irac war] topics? One answer to this ques�tion is ignorance. People who have never explored these topics are unlikely to provide opportunities for others to do so; the notion never arises. � But fear may be an even greater impediment. What harm might we do to our students if we encourage them to think critically and reflectively? The neglect of topics that call forth critical and reflective thinking; pervades our system of education. Teachers study some psychology and are urged to use what they learn in classrooms, They use psychology on students but not with them. Teachers and students are rarely invited to turn a reflective eye on their own thought processes and work habits. In a passion to control students, parents and teachers often structure homework and study time, assign penalties for miss�ing deadlines, and preach lessons on the value of hard steady work. But teachers might instead encourage students to ask questions such as: When and under what conditions do I do my best work? Is it ever productive to stop thinking and just look or listen? Is it possible that a problem, topic, or potential product might "speak" to us or some�how reveal itself? Is it sometimes morally acceptable and creatively productive to do less than my best work? What does it mean, anyway, to be educated? � Why do we not teach critical lessons on these [such as, Irac war] topics? One answer to this ques�tion is ignorance. People who have never explored these topics are unlikely to provide opportunities for others to do so; the notion never arises. � But fear may be an even greater impediment. What harm might we do to our students if we encourage them to think critically and reflectively?

4. How we define critical thinking? A broad definition of critical thinking (reflective thinking).. � Critical thinking refers not only to the assessment of arguments (that will certainly [to] be included) but also to the diligent and skillful use of reason on matters of moral/social importance - on personal decision making, conduct, and belief. By including its application to personal belief and decision making, we extend critical thinking to every domain of human inter�est. Mathematicians, health care professionals, artists, and farmers all properly use critical thinking in deciding what to believe and what to do in their professional lives. � [These are] topics that should be of crucial interest to everyone: teaching and learning, war, homemaking, parenting, advertising, making a liv�ing, relating to nonhuman animals, issues of gender, and religion. To neglect critical thinking on topics central to everyday life is to make the word education virtually meaningless. Almost all of the topics considered here might be explored from a civic perspective; that is, our main concerns might be directed at improving the communities in which we live. � A broad definition of critical thinking (reflective thinking).. � Critical thinking refers not only to the assessment of arguments (that will certainly [to] be included) but also to the diligent and skillful use of reason on matters of moral/social importance - on personal decision making, conduct, and belief. By including its application to personal belief and decision making, we extend critical thinking to every domain of human inter�est. Mathematicians, health care professionals, artists, and farmers all properly use critical thinking in deciding what to believe and what to do in their professional lives. � [These are] topics that should be of crucial interest to everyone: teaching and learning, war, homemaking, parenting, advertising, making a liv�ing, relating to nonhuman animals, issues of gender, and religion. To neglect critical thinking on topics central to everyday life is to make the word education virtually meaningless. Almost all of the topics considered here might be explored from a civic perspective; that is, our main concerns might be directed at improving the communities in which we live. �

5. The problem of teacher education The problems of teacher education. � Most teachers are not critical thinkers because they have not been asked to think critically. They readily accept the propaganda put forth by their professional associations and professors, and then they pass much of it along to their students. How can we help those training to teach to become critical thinkers? Is it important that we do so? � The massive structure of schooling as it is makes [this] task very difficult. Indeed, [still] many of the great educational critics of the 1960s all but despaired in their efforts to move public schools toward the greater freedom and critical thinking required by democratic education. Still, if only as a thought exercise, we should try again! The problems of teacher education. � Most teachers are not critical thinkers because they have not been asked to think critically. They readily accept the propaganda put forth by their professional associations and professors, and then they pass much of it along to their students. How can we help those training to teach to become critical thinkers? Is it important that we do so? � The massive structure of schooling as it is makes [this] task very difficult. Indeed, [still] many of the great educational critics of the 1960s all but despaired in their efforts to move public schools toward the greater freedom and critical thinking required by democratic education. Still, if only as a thought exercise, we should try again!

6. Learning and Self-Understanding Learning and Self-Understanding Possibly no goal of education is more important - or more neglected - than self-understanding. Socrates advised us, "Know thyself," and he claimed that the unexamined life is not worth living. We may feel that Socrates went too far on this, thereby dismiss�ing the lives of millions who have not had the opportunity to examine their lives. But when we claim to educate, we must take Socrates seri�ously. Unexamined lives may well be valuable and worth living, but an education that does not invite such examination may not be worthy of the label education. � [Nel�s ]entire book is about self-understanding and an examination of how external and internal forces affect out lives. We need to ask not only what we believe but why we believe it. Similarly, we need to ask, What do I feel? Why? What am I doing? Why? And even, What am I saying? And, again, why? � The most fundamental expectation of schooling is that students will learn. If we want them to learn to use their minds well, it is reasonable to help them understand how their minds function, how and why they learn. What motivates us to learn? What habits are helpful? Why do I remember some things and forget so many others? Does the object of learning ever enter actively into the process? If so, how can I encourage it to speak to me? Learning and Self-Understanding Possibly no goal of education is more important - or more neglected - than self-understanding. Socrates advised us, "Know thyself," and he claimed that the unexamined life is not worth living. We may feel that Socrates went too far on this, thereby dismiss�ing the lives of millions who have not had the opportunity to examine their lives. But when we claim to educate, we must take Socrates seri�ously. Unexamined lives may well be valuable and worth living, but an education that does not invite such examination may not be worthy of the label education. � [Nel�s ]entire book is about self-understanding and an examination of how external and internal forces affect out lives. We need to ask not only what we believe but why we believe it. Similarly, we need to ask, What do I feel? Why? What am I doing? Why? And even, What am I saying? And, again, why? � The most fundamental expectation of schooling is that students will learn. If we want them to learn to use their minds well, it is reasonable to help them understand how their minds function, how and why they learn. What motivates us to learn? What habits are helpful? Why do I remember some things and forget so many others? Does the object of learning ever enter actively into the process? If so, how can I encourage it to speak to me?

7. John Dewey Dewey devotes several pages to the importance of single-"-.imndedness or mental integrity in thinking and learning. Students need to understand how their real underlying motives or interests can distort their professed intention to "learn this stuff." If the student's real motive is to satisfy his father or to get a better mark than John or to get finished with this and go on to something more pleasurable, his mind is likely to be divided. Dewey says that the result is a confused and divided state of interest [double-mindedness] in which one is fooled as to one's own real intent. One tries to serve two masters at once. Social instincts, the strong desire to please oth�ers and get their approval, social training, the general sense of duty and of authority, apprehension of penalty, all lead to a half-hearted effort to conform, to "pay attention to the lesson," or whatever the requirement is. The pages in which Dewey discusses single-mindedness and double-mindedness would make wonderful reading for high school students (and their teachers). He writes of the mind wandering, the loss of energy, the self-deception, and the confused sense of real�ity accompanying double-mindedness. He then reminds readers that school conditions often encourage this double-mindedness. Dewey devotes several pages to the importance of single-"-.imndedness or mental integrity in thinking and learning. Students need to understand how their real underlying motives or interests can distort their professed intention to "learn this stuff." If the student's real motive is to satisfy his father or to get a better mark than John or to get finished with this and go on to something more pleasurable, his mind is likely to be divided. Dewey says that the result is a confused and divided state of interest [double-mindedness] in which one is fooled as to one's own real intent. One tries to serve two masters at once. Social instincts, the strong desire to please oth�ers and get their approval, social training, the general sense of duty and of authority, apprehension of penalty, all lead to a half-hearted effort to conform, to "pay attention to the lesson," or whatever the requirement is. The pages in which Dewey discusses single-mindedness and double-mindedness would make wonderful reading for high school students (and their teachers). He writes of the mind wandering, the loss of energy, the self-deception, and the confused sense of real�ity accompanying double-mindedness. He then reminds readers that school conditions often encourage this double-mindedness.

8. Other People Other People � One of the great mysteries of human life is the contradictory and paradoxical attitudes we take toward others. On the one hand we need one another; our happiness and well-being depend on establishing good relations with at least some human beings. On the other hand, we often fear others; we feel jealousy, envy, distrust, and even hate. In families and schools, we socialize children to conform to certain rules of behavior concerning the treatment of others and how to behave in social settings, but we rarely encourage a critical examination of the events and feelings that underlie the need for such rules. � What is it about human nature and human social conditions that make these rules necessary? Should we question or even reject some of these rules? Other People � One of the great mysteries of human life is the contradictory and paradoxical attitudes we take toward others. On the one hand we need one another; our happiness and well-being depend on establishing good relations with at least some human beings. On the other hand, we often fear others; we feel jealousy, envy, distrust, and even hate. In families and schools, we socialize children to conform to certain rules of behavior concerning the treatment of others and how to behave in social settings, but we rarely encourage a critical examination of the events and feelings that underlie the need for such rules. � What is it about human nature and human social conditions that make these rules necessary? Should we question or even reject some of these rules?

9. If we want to encourage critical thinking with respect to social�ization, we must periodically return to an examination of everyday behavior - behavior that is not governed by written laws or even explicit rules. Exploration of these behaviors should induce a sense of awe at just how dramatically we are influenced by socialization. � We should notice also that, since so many options are foreclosed in various social situations, the only one open - mental escape - is often chosen. If we want to encourage critical thinking with respect to social�ization, we must periodically return to an examination of everyday behavior - behavior that is not governed by written laws or even explicit rules. Exploration of these behaviors should induce a sense of awe at just how dramatically we are influenced by socialization. � We should notice also that, since so many options are foreclosed in various social situations, the only one open - mental escape - is often chosen.

10. Caring Interacting with other�caring � The main feature of caring is receptive attention on the part of the one who would care. When we receive what-is-there in the other, we are moved to respond. Usually, this response is triggered by moti�vational displacement; that is, our motive energy flows toward the needs of the cared-for. We are all familiar with this sequence of events. Indeed, we sometimes resist giving our full attention pre�cisely because we fear the likely motivational shift. Not wanting to lay aside our own interests and projects, we take refuge in not listen�ing or in listening superficially and responding politely but uselessly Interacting with other�caring � The main feature of caring is receptive attention on the part of the one who would care. When we receive what-is-there in the other, we are moved to respond. Usually, this response is triggered by moti�vational displacement; that is, our motive energy flows toward the needs of the cared-for. We are all familiar with this sequence of events. Indeed, we sometimes resist giving our full attention pre�cisely because we fear the likely motivational shift. Not wanting to lay aside our own interests and projects, we take refuge in not listen�ing or in listening superficially and responding politely but uselessly

11. Shared responsibility Shared responsibility � [ a case of Bob's bullying]. A teacher who understands that Bob is trying to achieve some recognition grants a positive motive for his unacceptable acts. By letting him know -explicitly or implicitly - that she sees in him a person who is better than his acts, she confirms that better person. �Confirmation� is, one of four major components of moral education: modeling, dialogue, practice, and confirmation. The first three have been widely, and approvingly, discussed, but the last is rarely mentioned. The idea of confirmation � (taken from Martin Buber) - is one of the loveliest ideas in moral life. But it seems to go against a long-standing attitude that identifies moral agents with their acts and holds them solely responsible for infractions they com�mit. Further, confirmation can only be performed when a relation has been established. The one doing the confirming has to know the one who is confirmed well enough to make a reasonable, honest judg�ment of what the other was trying to do. When we confirm someone, we attribute to a questionable act the best possible motive. Shared responsibility � [ a case of Bob's bullying]. A teacher who understands that Bob is trying to achieve some recognition grants a positive motive for his unacceptable acts. By letting him know -explicitly or implicitly - that she sees in him a person who is better than his acts, she confirms that better person. �Confirmation� is, one of four major components of moral education: modeling, dialogue, practice, and confirmation. The first three have been widely, and approvingly, discussed, but the last is rarely mentioned. The idea of confirmation � (taken from Martin Buber) - is one of the loveliest ideas in moral life. But it seems to go against a long-standing attitude that identifies moral agents with their acts and holds them solely responsible for infractions they com�mit. Further, confirmation can only be performed when a relation has been established. The one doing the confirming has to know the one who is confirmed well enough to make a reasonable, honest judg�ment of what the other was trying to do. When we confirm someone, we attribute to a questionable act the best possible motive.

12. Confirmation The idea of confirmation offers a position that rejects both radi�cal freedom and environmental determinism. It emerges from a firm belief in moral interdependence. It requires listening that is more than a form of politeness. It means recognizing the other as other and entering into her frame of reference as nearly as possible. � The idea of moral interdependence and the practice of confirmation are important not only to the lives of individuals but also to world peace and the interaction of various religious, ethnic, and national groups. A strong preference for the idea of moral interdependence. Teachers should express themselves and defend their beliefs. However, they should also encourage students to read and discuss the most powerful competing views available and continue to explore the questions: To what degree am I responsible for my own acts? To what degree am I responsible for things others do as a possible result of how I've treated them? How can I best contribute to the moral/ethical development of others? How should my thinking on this influence the social policies I support? � The idea of confirmation offers a position that rejects both radi�cal freedom and environmental determinism. It emerges from a firm belief in moral interdependence. It requires listening that is more than a form of politeness. It means recognizing the other as other and entering into her frame of reference as nearly as possible. � The idea of moral interdependence and the practice of confirmation are important not only to the lives of individuals but also to world peace and the interaction of various religious, ethnic, and national groups. A strong preference for the idea of moral interdependence. Teachers should express themselves and defend their beliefs. However, they should also encourage students to read and discuss the most powerful competing views available and continue to explore the questions: To what degree am I responsible for my own acts? To what degree am I responsible for things others do as a possible result of how I've treated them? How can I best contribute to the moral/ethical development of others? How should my thinking on this influence the social policies I support? �

13. Sources of Morality Sources of Morality Is God the source of morality? There are many who argue that this is true and that, without God, "everything is permitted." This pro�nouncement seems downright silly to others. This second group argues that human beings are social creatures; we depend on one another for pleasure, to get work done, for help in time of need, even for life itself. Our thorough interdependence is enough to gen�erate moral thought. Self-interest, fellow feeling, practical reason, mother love, and God have all been suggested as sources of moral conduct. Sources of Morality Is God the source of morality? There are many who argue that this is true and that, without God, "everything is permitted." This pro�nouncement seems downright silly to others. This second group argues that human beings are social creatures; we depend on one another for pleasure, to get work done, for help in time of need, even for life itself. Our thorough interdependence is enough to gen�erate moral thought. Self-interest, fellow feeling, practical reason, mother love, and God have all been suggested as sources of moral conduct.

14. Preparing Teachers Preparing Teachers How can teachers be prepared to conduct critical lessons and, in particular, to conduct such lessons on issues that do not appear in the standard curriculum? Perhaps we are asking too much. Both teacher educators and policymakers today insist that every classroom be staffed by a highly qualified teacher. � But what does this mean for the sorts of lessons described as critical? In most states in the United States, teachers are considered highly qualified if they have received the prescribed training required for a credential; thus, highly qualified is synonymous with credentialed. To evaluate the worth of a credential requires considerable analysis. Even properly credentialed teachers sometimes exhibit deplorable ignorance. In recent talks with young teachers, I heard many of them express concerns about their own deficiencies. One young man, a fifth-grade teacher, was worried about teaching science; he didn't "know much science." Preparing Teachers How can teachers be prepared to conduct critical lessons and, in particular, to conduct such lessons on issues that do not appear in the standard curriculum? Perhaps we are asking too much. Both teacher educators and policymakers today insist that every classroom be staffed by a highly qualified teacher. � But what does this mean for the sorts of lessons described as critical? In most states in the United States, teachers are considered highly qualified if they have received the prescribed training required for a credential; thus, highly qualified is synonymous with credentialed. To evaluate the worth of a credential requires considerable analysis. Even properly credentialed teachers sometimes exhibit deplorable ignorance. In recent talks with young teachers, I heard many of them express concerns about their own deficiencies. One young man, a fifth-grade teacher, was worried about teaching science; he didn't "know much science."

15. Transformed Curriculum Transformed Curriculum Curricula at both K-12 and college levels should be revised. To conduct critical lessons, teachers need practice in their own studies, and they need time, materials, and encouragement to engage in such lessons when they start to teach. As organized today, almost every aca�demic course is designed to serve as preparation for the next course: algebra one for algebra two, tenth-grade English for eleventh, and so on. Indeed, the status of a course is directly proportional to its function in promoting the next higher level of a discipline. Courses designed for usefulness in everyday life or simply for their own sake rarely stand high in the academic hierarchy. The only justification for much of what is taught in secondary school is that it is needed or required at the next level of schooling. No wonder people forget so much of what is learned in high school as soon as there is no next course looming. � Other choices should be available as well, and the sequential courses could be - should be - broadened and enriched. The usual argument against such enrichment is that there is so much material to be "covered" that there is no time for divergent discussion, no room for additional topics. High school students preparing for life in a liberal democracy should be offered real choices among rich courses focused on (1) sequential study of the discipline; (2) a general humanistic approach to the discipline and its place in the culture; (3) practical applications that are clearly useful in everyday life; or (4) practical applications focused on a particular set of occupations. Transformed Curriculum Curricula at both K-12 and college levels should be revised. To conduct critical lessons, teachers need practice in their own studies, and they need time, materials, and encouragement to engage in such lessons when they start to teach. As organized today, almost every aca�demic course is designed to serve as preparation for the next course: algebra one for algebra two, tenth-grade English for eleventh, and so on. Indeed, the status of a course is directly proportional to its function in promoting the next higher level of a discipline. Courses designed for usefulness in everyday life or simply for their own sake rarely stand high in the academic hierarchy. The only justification for much of what is taught in secondary school is that it is needed or required at the next level of schooling. No wonder people forget so much of what is learned in high school as soon as there is no next course looming. � Other choices should be available as well, and the sequential courses could be - should be - broadened and enriched. The usual argument against such enrichment is that there is so much material to be "covered" that there is no time for divergent discussion, no room for additional topics. High school students preparing for life in a liberal democracy should be offered real choices among rich courses focused on (1) sequential study of the discipline; (2) a general humanistic approach to the discipline and its place in the culture; (3) practical applications that are clearly useful in everyday life; or (4) practical applications focused on a particular set of occupations.

16. Teaching is perhaps the only current profession that requires "Renaissance" people - people who have a broad knowledge of many disciplines and perennial questions. � A teacher in grades K-12 is not, and perhaps should not be, a mathematician, scientist, historian, literary critic, psychologist, or statistician. We encounter again a status problem. Many bright young teachers want to identify themselves with the basic discipline in which they have majored. The young math teacher may, for example, consider her�self a mathematician. But mathematicians will not regard her as a mathematician. To be accepted as a mathematician, she will have to earn a Ph.D. in mathematics or produce some original mathematics. Neither achievement is likely. � Why not identify proudly and whole�heartedly with the profession of teaching? "I am a teacher" should be a proud declaration. Teaching is perhaps the only current profession that requires "Renaissance" people - people who have a broad knowledge of many disciplines and perennial questions. � A teacher in grades K-12 is not, and perhaps should not be, a mathematician, scientist, historian, literary critic, psychologist, or statistician. We encounter again a status problem. Many bright young teachers want to identify themselves with the basic discipline in which they have majored. The young math teacher may, for example, consider her�self a mathematician. But mathematicians will not regard her as a mathematician. To be accepted as a mathematician, she will have to earn a Ph.D. in mathematics or produce some original mathematics. Neither achievement is likely. � Why not identify proudly and whole�heartedly with the profession of teaching? "I am a teacher" should be a proud declaration.

17. Breadth and Specialisation The BREADTH required to teach well is not often acquired by simply taking an array of courses in college, because each of these courses is, as pointed out earlier, designed for the next higher course in the disci�pline addressed. Teacher candidates, like those in engineering, should study courses especially designed for them in all of the disciplines. Such courses would emphasize connections - to other disciplines, to the common problems of humanity, and to personal exploration of universal questions of meaning. � What is the difference between what [Nel�s] advocating here and the sort of education recommended by Adler, Hutchins, Bloom, and Maclntyre? Didn't teachers educated in the great books and stan�dard academic subjects display the breadth I want? Some surely did, and we should acknowledge that fact. The difficulty is that these thinkers insisted that all students should be required to study this one great curriculum and that these studies would somehow, almost necessarily, produce intelligent citizenship and a deeply satisfying personal/intellectual life. This is mistaken on both counts. .. Many, possibly most, students are not interested in academic studies for their own sake, and they are not convinced that these studies have much actual use. [But] when we begin with topics, problems, and issues of interest to students, we may be able to expand those interests. There is no reason to suppose that, by cramming their heads with material of little interest, a magic moment will occur when "all this makes sense," and highly accomplished students will be ready to make important decisions as individuals and citizens. It does happen sometimes, and the appearance of wonderful exemplars causes us to think and rethink our position. We should want the traditional material to be available for those attracted to it, and teachers should be able to allude to it - to use it to make vital connections. What better way is there to show the value of traditional material than by using it effectively and appreci�atively? � Well-educated teachers should help students to understand that knowledge is not adequately described as a set of easily retrievable answers to unambiguously stated questions. Much real knowledge consists of well-developed capacities to figure things out. Nor is it solely a matter of knowing where to look, although that is important. It is more a matter of being unafraid to inquire, to experiment, to face the possibility that one might not succeed. The BREADTH required to teach well is not often acquired by simply taking an array of courses in college, because each of these courses is, as pointed out earlier, designed for the next higher course in the disci�pline addressed. Teacher candidates, like those in engineering, should study courses especially designed for them in all of the disciplines. Such courses would emphasize connections - to other disciplines, to the common problems of humanity, and to personal exploration of universal questions of meaning. � What is the difference between what [Nel�s] advocating here and the sort of education recommended by Adler, Hutchins, Bloom, and Maclntyre? Didn't teachers educated in the great books and stan�dard academic subjects display the breadth I want? Some surely did, and we should acknowledge that fact. The difficulty is that these thinkers insisted that all students should be required to study this one great curriculum and that these studies would somehow, almost necessarily, produce intelligent citizenship and a deeply satisfying personal/intellectual life. This is mistaken on both counts. .. Many, possibly most, students are not interested in academic studies for their own sake, and they are not convinced that these studies have much actual use. [But] when we begin with topics, problems, and issues of interest to students, we may be able to expand those interests. There is no reason to suppose that, by cramming their heads with material of little interest, a magic moment will occur when "all this makes sense," and highly accomplished students will be ready to make important decisions as individuals and citizens. It does happen sometimes, and the appearance of wonderful exemplars causes us to think and rethink our position. We should want the traditional material to be available for those attracted to it, and teachers should be able to allude to it - to use it to make vital connections. What better way is there to show the value of traditional material than by using it effectively and appreci�atively? � Well-educated teachers should help students to understand that knowledge is not adequately described as a set of easily retrievable answers to unambiguously stated questions. Much real knowledge consists of well-developed capacities to figure things out. Nor is it solely a matter of knowing where to look, although that is important. It is more a matter of being unafraid to inquire, to experiment, to face the possibility that one might not succeed.

18. Critical Lessons for All Programs Critical Lessons for All Programs Educators should take the advice of Socrates seriously: we should teach for self-knowledge. [Nel�s critical lessons] approach does not turn inward to examine the unconscious or the id. Rather, it suggests look�ing at the self in connection to other selves and to both the physical and social environments. How and why do we act on the world? How does it act on us? � Critical lessons should pervade the curriculum. Planning for every course - academic, vocational, or general - should include consid�eration of how the topics and skills to be taught connect to every�day life, personal growth and meaning, other school subjects, and spiritual questions. To do this effectively, much junk will have to be removed from the curriculum. The basic structure of the sec�ondary curriculum - organization around the traditional disciplines -probably will not change in the foreseeable future. However, every discipline can be stretched from the inside to provide richer, more meaningful studies. Critical Lessons for All Programs Educators should take the advice of Socrates seriously: we should teach for self-knowledge. [Nel�s critical lessons] approach does not turn inward to examine the unconscious or the id. Rather, it suggests look�ing at the self in connection to other selves and to both the physical and social environments. How and why do we act on the world? How does it act on us? � Critical lessons should pervade the curriculum. Planning for every course - academic, vocational, or general - should include consid�eration of how the topics and skills to be taught connect to every�day life, personal growth and meaning, other school subjects, and spiritual questions. To do this effectively, much junk will have to be removed from the curriculum. The basic structure of the sec�ondary curriculum - organization around the traditional disciplines -probably will not change in the foreseeable future. However, every discipline can be stretched from the inside to provide richer, more meaningful studies.

19. All talents, interests, and honest occupations should be respected and encouraged, and critical lessons can be vigorously engaged in every curricular program. Students do not have to study traditional academic courses to become critical thinkers but, when their own interests are respected, they may listen attentively to what the great thinkers have said about those interests. They may even add productively to that thinking. � Stretching the disciplines from within suggests that, paradoxically, breadth might well be achieved by specialization. It is rarely achieved through the coerced study of unconnected specialties, however many of them are stuffed into the required curriculum. Students specializ�ing in mathematics or science can, in the process, learn something of history, biography, philosophy, literature, aesthetics, religion, and how to live. A large part of every curriculum should be devoted to Life itself, � and many lessons - not just an odd one here and there - should be wonderful - that is, designed to excite wonder, awe, and appreciation of the world and the place of human beings in it. All talents, interests, and honest occupations should be respected and encouraged, and critical lessons can be vigorously engaged in every curricular program. Students do not have to study traditional academic courses to become critical thinkers but, when their own interests are respected, they may listen attentively to what the great thinkers have said about those interests. They may even add productively to that thinking. � Stretching the disciplines from within suggests that, paradoxically, breadth might well be achieved by specialization. It is rarely achieved through the coerced study of unconnected specialties, however many of them are stuffed into the required curriculum. Students specializ�ing in mathematics or science can, in the process, learn something of history, biography, philosophy, literature, aesthetics, religion, and how to live. A large part of every curriculum should be devoted to Life itself, � and many lessons - not just an odd one here and there - should be wonderful - that is, designed to excite wonder, awe, and appreciation of the world and the place of human beings in it.