Critical Thinking: The Biological Basis of How We Do It, Learn It, and Teach It

1. Critical Thinking:The Biological Basis of How We Do It, Learn It, and Teach It Peter L. Walton, M.D. Associate Dean for Academic Affairs School of Public Health and Information Sciences

2. iClicker Question 0 (15 sec.) “Critical thinking is a cognitive activity that: • can be learned, • is difficult to teach or evaluate, • requires an organized and rational approach, • and to succeed must become a nearly automatic function.” • True • False

3. Agenda … and we’re off … Declarations Central Question and F&PCs Warm-up • Others’ thoughts on critical thinking • Exercises for you to feel less certain about: • Your senses • Your cognition • Your objectivity Groundwork • Natural selection • Genetics, et al. • Neuroscience Individual vs. team sport Teachers vs. students Conclusions Suggestions WARNING: All of this is 46% of the slides, doesn’t mention critical thinking at all, but is indispensible for making any sense of the rest. • My goal is awareness, not understanding or agreement. • I’ll be covering lots of dots quickly, often without connecting them. • These are left for you to do at your leisure.

4. Declarations I’m an unabashed and unrepentant i2a groupie (redundantly speaking). I’m all for critical thinking but accept that it too is subject to critical thinking. Everything in my presentation is based on currently accepted evidence. • However, a lot of what I’ll say, while based on evidence, is still conjectural and in italics. I currently accept the following as fundamental for critical thinking: • Critical thinking is an instance of the scientific method, which includes emotion. • Whether free will exists or not is a distracter. Ditto for consciousness. • Biases/heuristics are both good and bad for critical thinking. • Certainty is a emotion. • Most approaches to critical thinking (e.g., Paul-Elder) are based on a classification system. • All classification systems are falsifiable (see Gödel) but many are extremely useful. • My biases lead me to accept and communicate these fundamentals. • Some or all of these fundamentals are likely in error.

5. iClicker Question 1 (15 sec.) With which of the following of my declarations are you the MOST UNCOMFORTABLE? • Critical thinking is an instance of the scientific method, which includes emotion. • Certainty is a emotion. • Most approaches to critical thinking (e.g., Paul-Elder) are based on a classification system. • All classification systems are falsifiable (see Gödel) but many are extremely useful. • Other. No response = None

6. Central Question "Can we really think critically let alone teach it?"

7. Fundamental & Powerful Concepts • Natural selection • Sexual reproduction • Intuition/emotion • Bias/heuristic • Socialization Any questions?

8. Quick Peek at the End of the Book Can we really think critically? Yes. But not the way we think we do. Let alone teach it? Yes. But not the way we think we are.

9. Agenda Declarations Central Question and F&PCs Warm-up • Others’ thoughts on critical thinking • Exercises for you to feel less certain about: • Your senses • Your cognition • Your objectivity Groundwork • Natural selection • Genetics, et al. • Neuroscience Individual vs. team sport Teachers vs. students Conclusions Suggestions Fun part

10. Others’ Thoughts on Critical Thinking “The human understanding supposes a greater degree of order…in things than it really finds.” -- Francis Bacon, NovumOrganum, 1620 “Truth will sooner come out of error than from confusion.” -- Francis Bacon, ?1623 “Our whole problem is to make mistakes as fast possible.” -- John Wheeler, presumably updating Francis Bacon “The real purpose of [critical thinking] is to make sure Nature hasn’t misled you into thinking you know something that you actually don’t.” -- Robert Pirsig, Zen and Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, 1974 “The first principle is that you must not fool yourself -- and you are the easiest person to fool.” -- Richard Feynman, 1974 “The greatest obstacle to discovery is not ignorance -- it is the illusion of knowledge.” -- Daniel Boorstin, Librarian of Congress, 1984

11. iClicker Question 2 (10 sec.) The BLUE line CD on the right is what percent as long as the RED line AB on the left? A. 60% B. 70% C. 80% D. 90% E. 100%

12. The BLUE line CD on the right is what percent as long as the RED line AB on the left? E. 100%

13. iClicker Question 4 (15 sec.) • I toss two coins, promising that if at least one of them comes up heads, I will tell you. • I look at both coins and volunteer that at least one is indeed a head. What’s the chance that the other is also a head? A. 25% C. 50% E. 75% B. 33% D. 66%

14. Two Coins But No Fountain • I toss two coins, promising that if at least one of them comes up heads, I will tell you. • I look at both coins and volunteer that at least one is indeed a head. There are four possible cases: HH, HT, TH, TT. Three of these have at least one head: HH, HT, TH Of those three, one has a second head: HH The chance of the other being a head is 33% (answer B).

15. iClicker Question 6 (30 sec.) Which of these cards must you turn over to determine whether this rule is true or not: “If there is a vowel on one side, there is an even number on the other side”? A K 2 7 A. A only C. A and 2 E. other B. 2 only D. A and 7

16. A Card Game Rule” “If there is a vowel on one side, there is an even number on the other side.” You must turn over the “A” card to see if there’s an even number on the other side (verification) and the “7” card to see if there’s a vowel on the other side (falsification). The other cards are of no use. Everybody turns over “A”; 4% turn over “7”, while the rest either are done or turn over the “2” (confirmation bias). Answer: D. A and 7 A K 2 7

17. Agenda Declarations Central Question and F&PCs Warm-up • Others’ thoughts on critical thinking • Exercises for you to feel less certain about: • Your senses • Your cognition • Your objectivity Groundwork • Natural selection • Genetics, et al. • Neuroscience Individual vs. team sport Teachers vs. students Conclusions Suggestions Challenging part

18. Natural Selection A very brief synopsis of natural selection: • Natural selection is not blind – it simply has no intent or purpose. • The outcome of natural selection is selective persistence – nothing else. • Persistence requires replication, which requires replicators to have fidelity, fecundity, and longevity – nothing else. • Lineages that tend to persist tend to persist. • Characteristics that enhance lineage persistence tend to persist with their lineages. And intuition is one of these characteristics.

19. Intuition Cognitive scientists have found that most (>99%) of our day-to-day “decisions” make essentially sole use of our ability to “think” without awareness. This is intuition. Our use of intuition does not decrease much when what we are deciding is important (e.g., life and death) or unimportant (e.g., what to wear). In fact, the use of intuition increases as expertise in an area increases. And biases are essential agents in intuition.

20. Biases A vital persistence characteristic in natural selection is the ability to act quickly. Simple heuristics evolved to support acting quickly. These heuristics are biases. Some are deemed “good” by humans, e.g.: • Type 1 vs. type 2 errors • Certainty Some are deemed “bad” by humans, e.g.: • Framing • Confirmation And all of them evolved by enhancing persistence.

21. A Really Major Characteristic Sexual reproduction: • Enhances persistence in presence of parasites • Enhances diversity within lineages Consequences: • Socialization: • Group identity (e.g., tribalism, both by blood and mating and, in humans, by acquired characteristics, e.g., golf playing) • Specialization • Specialty selection by distinctions of traits and/or lineages • Differential and non-linear valuations of specialties • Sexual selection: • Handicap principle And everything is governed by genetics (sort of).

22. Genetics, et al. DNA • Everything life is capable of is dictated by DNA – but with important additional considerations. Genes – about 2-3% of DNA • Encoded for structural and worker molecules – protein. RNA – uncertain % but probably all the rest • Encoded for controlling production of proteins and RNA and for controlling the control of RNA There is no “junk” in DNA.

23. More Genetics, et al. Epigenes • RNA that controls DNA and its expression and controls RNA in response to the environment Nature vs. nurture • There is no “vs.” – they cooperate, more or less • DNA (nature) enables the environment (nurture) to modify the expression of DNA (nature) to adapt to the environment (nurture). Repeat until dead. And neuroscience is learning how genetics, et al. provide mechanisms for persistence of intuition, cognition, and decision making.

24. iClicker Question 8 (15 sec.) Between birth and sexual maturity, which of the following happens to our brain’s neurons, on average? • We double the number of neurons. • We increase the number of neurons by 23%. • We keep the same number of neurons. • We decrease the number of neurons by 12%. • We halve the number of neurons.

25. Neuroscience Neuron pruning • Between birth and sexual maturity, we “prune” (i.e., kill) 50% of the neurons we’re born with. • This is in response to our environment (adaptation). • Post-pruning we add and prune neurons throughout our lives to a much lesser extent. Synapse pruning • We add and prune connections among neurons in adapting to our environment, primarily during initial neuron pruning. • Post-pruning we add and prune synapses throughout our lives, again to a much lesser extent.

26. Neuroscience Glial cells • Outnumber neurons by ~9:1. • Initially thought to only provide structural support for neurons. • Recently found to also “nurture” neurons – blood supply, nutrients, and connection speed. • Each neuron has many caretaker glial cells. • Each glial cell may be caretaker to several neurons. • Likely responsible for both neuron and synapse pruning.

27. More Neuroscience Mirror neurons • Appear to be involved in understanding the actions of others (by simulation and empathy) and learning new skills (by imitation). • Located in many parts of the brain. Prefrontal cortex • Primary location for integration of emotion, intuition, and cognition. • Essential for decision making. • Matures at differing stages and rates by gender and individual.

28. Token Picture and Quote Prefrontal cortex “Depending on their target of influence, representations in the PFC can function variously as attentional templates, rules, or goals by providing top-down bias signals to other parts of the brain that guide the flow of activity along the pathways needed to perform a task.” Miller EK, Cohen JD (2001). "An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function". Annu Rev Neurosci24: 167–202.

29. Even More Neuroscience Experiment: Motor action by intention • Finding: Sequence is not decide-prepare-act but rather prepare-decide-act. • Finding: Deciding follows preparing by about 0.4 second. Experiment: Timing of action and awareness of action • Finding: Awareness follows action by about 0.4 second. Experiment: Neuron behavior in binary-bet game. • Finding: Neuron activity indicated bet decision on average 2.8 seconds before subjects “decided” on bet.

30. Still More Neuroscience Experiment: Differentially rewarded and penalized multi-card deck game (Iowa Gambling Task): • Finding: Most subjects identify “good” and “bad” decks after 40-50 card flips. • Finding: Subjects show stress responses to “bad” decks after about 10 card flips. • Finding: Younger college subjects perform worse than older ones (?immature prefrontal cortex). • Finding: College education is predictor of poorer performance (?emphasis on rational thought vs. emotion).

31. One More from Neuroscience Subjects: Individuals whose prefrontal cortex has been damaged such that integration of emotion is decreased or absent. Finding: Unable to make everyday decisions (e.g., Coke or Pepsi) and life-altering decisions (e.g., change jobs). Conclusion: Emotion is essential for decision-making. Theory: Immediate gratification trumps long-term gratification even knowing the potential negative results of the former in the long run.

32. Agenda Declarations Central Question and F&PCs Warm-up • Others’ thoughts on critical thinking • Exercises for you to feel less certain about: • Your senses • Your cognition • Your objectivity Groundwork • Natural selection • Genetics, et al. • Neuroscience Individual vs. team sport Teachers vs. students Conclusions Suggestions Frustrating part

33. iClicker Question 9 (10 sec.) Critical thinking is: • An individual sport. • A team sport. • Both. • An illusion. • I have no idea.

34. Individual vs. Team Sport, Round 1 Natural selection A brief recap: Conclusion: • Our brains evolved for socialization • and for selection • and selection is a dynamic mix of competition, cooperation, and collaboration. Lineage persistence Sexual reproduction Socialization Sexual selection Specialization Specialty selection Brain functions Genetics, et al.

35. Individual vs. Team Sport, Round 2 A single person doing science in isolation could be doing science or could be fooling herself and doing anecdotes. • Note: The plural of anecdote is not data. A good way for her not fool herself is to for others do the same things and see if they get the same results. A.k.a. the scientific method. The same must hold for critical thinking since it’s an instance of the scientific method. So critical thinking is a team sport!

36. Individual vs. Team Sport, Round 3 Hold on there, You. I think critically – I put together this presentation after all! True. Specialty selection does not result in everyone in the specialty having the same level of performance in the specialty. Many scientists frequently have their findings confirmed. So critical thinking is an individual sport to an extent that varies among critical thinkers. And the way a critical thinker determines his own extent is by sharing his thinking with other critical thinkers to see what they think about it. He also learns about others’ thinking (?partly via mirror neurons).

37. Individual vs. Team Sport, Round 4 So critical thinking is an individual sport up to a point that varies by individual and within an individual by ability and practice, that requires critical thinking to be a team sport for practicing, and that ultimately is a team sport determining the extent to which an individual can play individually and still be part of the team.

38. Teachers vs. Students

39. Score: Teachers 12, Students 0 But there’s more … … and the bottom line …

40. Conclusions Can we really think critically? • Yes, but learning how took lots of time and practice in an environment that nurtured implicit teamwork. • And it still requires continual practice. Let alone teach it? • Yes, but we need to build in lots of time and practice in an environment that provides explicit teamwork. • And we need to balance what we love (content) with what we use (critical thinking).

41. iClicker Question 10 (10 sec.) Critical thinking is: • An individual sport. • A team sport. • Both. • An illusion. • I have no idea.

42. Suggestions Here are some suggestions based on what we know about natural selection, genetics, and neuroscience: • Discuss the above and the teacher vs. student dilemma. • Hold impromptu class discussions about course issues. • Balance content and technique . • Depth with critical thinking vs. breadth with factual recall. • Evaluate deliverables using intellectual standards. • Start with a few then add more as students catch on. • Use a repeated exercise that has different content but the same format, intent, and evaluation standards. • Practice, practice, practice!

43. Suggestions (cont.) • Include an analytic report using the elements of thought (adapted) that is revised until it meets defined evaluation expectations. • Make achievement the constant and time the variable. • Do group activities. • T-P-S, peer evaluations, presentations • Schedule office hours with groups of five students. • Discuss course, philosophy, life, current events, whatever. • Show and discuss a relevant movie or documentary. • Implement team learning. • But only if you’re committed to making it work.

44. Final Thoughts Active learning simply means keeping students cognitively active. • This requires them to be under a mild but perceptible level of stress. • Expect it and nurture it. • Tell students about it early on (e.g., class 1). Essential aspects of learning and rationality are intuition and emotion. • Don’t avoid them. Enjoy using them. • Tell students about them early on (e.g., class 1).

45. iClicker Question 12 (15 sec.) “Critical thinking is a cognitive activity that: • can be learned, • is difficult to teach or evaluate, • requires an organized and rational approach, • and to succeed must become a nearly automatic function.” • True • False

46. Questions? Answers? So long . . . and thanks for all the fish.