İntroduction to Psychology

1. İntroduction to Psychology Prof. Dr. Müfit Uğur

2. What is Psychology • Psychoylogy is the science which defines human behavior and human cognitive functions scientifically. • Animals also have psychologies. ( they think ,dream etc). • Behaviors are main topics. • How we lough ,become angry or feel happy.

3. Branches of psychology • Clinical psychology • School psychology • Counselling psychology • İndustrial psychology • Experimental psychology • Social psychology • Developmental psychology • Psychometric psychology

4. Forerunners of psychology • Wundt-introspection • Freud –ego • Watson-behavior • Adler- self psyc • Jung-collec sub con. • Erich Fromm - Environment family.

5. Wundt Psychology • Focused on perception of sensations, • According to him human pschology was one’s conciousness about the surrounding. • Colour vision perception • Tactile perception • Time perception • He defined the method of İntrospection in which one was feeling the events ,than lived the events, than make some assumptions about what he has done. • He worked on reaction time and related perceptions.He also calculated reaction time duration under different circumstances.

6. Freud Psychology • He lived during 1856-1939, • He proposed the theories of Psyhoanalytical psychiatry, • İn this psyhoanalytical psychiatry ,Freud worked mainly on subconciousness, • According to him these subconcious material was resulting in specific human behaviors, • Humans ego was in the need of continuos gratification need. • Repressed material to subconcious results in our involuntary movementes ,stammerings, stutterings speeches and dreams • His theories mainly based on id- ego and superego dynamics.

7. Watson Psychology • According to him psychology was human behaviors- • Heredity does not have adequate effects on human behaviors, • Human behaviors are regulated by the environment. • Hereditary characters and insincts were not so important • To him all behaviors must be fully measurable • Test groups must be evaluated objectively and their evaluations must be considered with control groups. • Watson psychology was named under “Behavioral psychology”.

8. Adler Psychology • His theories are mainly based on one’ superiority • His proposals are that ego always wants to be superior in the environment • This feeling of superiority sometimes motivates the behavior but sometimes if expectations are to much , this can cause some disasters in one’s living • So expectations must be in balance

9. Jung- Fromm psychology • Jung has postulated some theories on the collective subconcious. • All nations have collective motivations whether they live in America or in Africa or in Asia • These motivations stem from one origin which is in the deep parts of the subconcious Fromm postulates: • Family is important, • Love and graification is important, • Courage are important motives so family interactiorns are important.

10. Merkez Sinir sistemi Nöroanatomik oluşumları

11. Frontal lobe • Posterior border : Sulcus centralis • Medial border : Fissura longitudinalis superior • Bottom :Sylvian fissure • İt regulates the sensory and motor inputs and makes the associations between them • Subparts of the lobe: • Medial pqrefrontal cortex • Lateral prefrontal cortex • Orbitofrontal cortex

12. Prefrontal Korteks

13. Prefrontal cortex • Medial prefrontal cortex • Thalamus • Hypothalamus • Amygdala • Hippocampus • Limbic lobe ( Regulates affect of the behaviors,drives, instincts,motivations) • Lateral Prefrontal cortex • Regulates the executive functions of the frontal lobe • Regulates the high ordered behaviors • Regulates to form plans and regulates its aplications to daily life • Orbitofrontal cortex • İt regulates the conditioned reflexes

14. Prefrontal korteks

15. Parietal lobe • İt is located posteriorly of the frontal lobe • İt colects the sensory inputs from the body or from the environment • İt makes resolutions about their meanings • İt gathers the input from the surrounding together • İt gives a rational meaning to them • İt stores the knowledge about them • İt controls the executive functions of the frontal lobe and executes them in a rational way

16. Temporal lobe • İt is dorsallay sorrunded by fissura longituoinalis superior, • its inferomedial border is hippocampus, • Below the temporal lobe amygdala and uncus is located. • İt is the association are of auditory signals from the surrounding, • İt regğulates the auditory signals from the environment , • Regulates the memory and signals from the surrounding is encoded by it • Associates the speech ve visual signals and behaves ( speakes) according to these signals • Regulates the affective signals of the surrounding , so speech is also related with the affective tone of the stimuli

17. Occipital lobe • Occipital lobe is mainly related with visual signals from the surrounding, and visual signals project to the calcarine fissure which is on the occipital lobe, • So it is the main visual projection area of the brain • İt also makes asssociations between the figures; • colour • Shape • Movement • İt is also important in longitudinal dimensional perception • Occipital lobe is important ,it makes associations between the speech and object relations

18. Parieto temporal cortex • İt makes associations between auditory signals, visual signals and somatosensorial signals • İt is important in multidimensional perception • İt is also important in the regulation of speech and also regulates abstract thinking and abstract speech. • İmportant in problem solving • İmportant in the resolution of the confused cognitive processes

19. Cerebral cortex • İt regulates the motor and and sensory signals of the brain • Most important motor regulatory center is Broca center and its pathology lasts speech arrest and it is called Motor aphasia • Most important sensory center is the wernicke center and its pathology is related with sensorial aphasia. So the patient can not find words to speak • Agraphia is resembling the pathology in which sensorial thinking can not be written as words • Alexia resembles the pathology in which the patient does not uhderstand what he reads • Acalculia resembles not having the ability to make calculations • Agnosia is the pathology in which one cannot recognize objects with closed eye either with touching or grasping it.

20. Prefrontal cortex • İt is located in the frontal lobe anteriorly, • Makes regulations between the inputs from the surrounding so the persons behavior will be socially adaptive. This is called Regulations of the insight. • Maintains optimum arrousal for adequate interpersonal relations,object relations • İmportant in accumulation of attention to a specific target person or an object • İt measures the signals from the surrounding and also decides their probable end results or the risk of the situation. • İt provides elasticity in our thinking and behaviors towards others

21. Basal ganglia • İt makes up the extrapyramidal system and it is located subcortically. • İts main purpose is to regulate and control our involuntary movements • İn case of Chorea spontaneous involuntary movements of the extremites of the body • Athetozis some involuntary movements are out of control especially in the hand and the fingers • Ballismus is the involuntary spasms of the extremities of the body • Rigidity is the increase in the tonus of the muscles so the muscles cannot make any movement • Bradykinesia is the slowing down of the movements of the extremites, • İts pathologies result in; • Wilson disease • Parkinsons disease • Huntingtons chorea • Sydenhams chorea • schizophrenia

22. Thalamus • İt is important in the regulation of the cortical and subcortical stimulations and making adequate associatıns between them, • Regulates and directs attention towards the target objects, • İt is important in filtering the sensory stimulation of the real world and picks up the most important ones whereas neglecting the others, • Produces motor responses in associatıon to the signals from the surrounding, • Supports cortical and subcortical circuits for a healthy cognitive activity. • İn its pahological conditions; • Perseverations • İrrelevant speech content • Apathy • Amnestic states • Personality disorders • Disordered executive functions • Denial • Aphasic conditions • Schizophrenia

23. Orbitofrontal Korteks

24. Hypocampus • İt is located medially of the temporal cortexand is situated subcortically, • İt main purpose is to regulate; • Memory • İts pathology is related with psychiatric disorders

25. Hipokampus

26. Limbic lobe • Most important part is the amygdala besides hiypocampus • İt regulates the behaviors in the following aspects; • Learning and memory • Food seeking • Desires for Sexual intercourse • Ability to find the child in animals • To feel the danger in the environment • To make defense towards an unwanted condition • To make a plan for an attack towards an unwanted target • İn its pathological states • İrregular fers, stres conditions,anxiety feelings(PTSD,phobic ,panicdisorder • Epilepy • Memory disorders like Deja –vu.

27. Amygdala

28. İnsula • İt is important in sensory and motor associations • İmportant in pain perception • İts pathology makes speech disorders • Can not show emotions towards others • Memory loss is important • Faces with disgust., sadness and fear in the persons can only be perceived in intact insula • Conditioned reflexes toward fears is reguleted by it • Phobic anxiety symptoms, • To understand the meanings of mimics which do not give any pleasure • To understand hunger • To categorize all the above symptoms according to their sev erity

29. Gyrus Cingulus

30. Gyrus Cinguli • İt evaluates the sensory and affective values of the stimuli from the surrounding, whether it gives pleasure or discomfort to the person, • İmportent in the regulation of; • Fear • Euphoric states • Depression • Sexuality • Agression

31. Septum

32. Serebellum • İt controls and regulates the motor activity of the muscles • İt is related in equilibrium of the body in various places • Equilibrium disturbances are; • Loss in synergic movements is called ataxic movement • Tremor and hipotonic states are due to its pathology • Nistagmus is remated to it and means horizontal or vertical involuntary eye movements • Motor speech disturbances are frequent • Abnormal pusture in a person is related to serebeller pathology. • Regulates conditioning • İmportant in time perception • Learning is under its control • Cognitive affection is under its regulatory control • Also thinking is disturbed which we call dismetric thinking,

33. Brain stem • Cranial nerves originate from this area.So its pathology results in cranial nerve palsies • Vital regulatory centers are also located here.İmportant ones are; • Respiratory center • Cardiac regulatory center ( pulse rate ) • Blood pessure center • Center related to eye movements • Centers related to gastric and cardiac movement • Ascendan motor and sensorial nerves pass through this area,so pathology which is present here disturbs the passage of the motor and sensorial nerve signals to the above brain areas • Arrousal center which we call formatio reticularis is very close to this area

34. Nervous system • Neuron is made up from a-soma b-dendrites c-axon d-terminal button Synapse Neurotransmitter (Ach Col,NE,Dopa,Ser,GABA,GL Neuropeptide Substance P

35. Parts of a neuron • Soma • The nucleus of the neuron is in the soma • Signals come from the dendrites and the nucleus makes a decision what to do. • The signals that are produced here goes to the periphery through the Axons • İt is related with the regulatory functions • Axon • They differ according to their lenghts From nm to met, • Massages are transfered through the axon from soma to terminal button • Axons end with the terminal buttons where neurotransmitters are synthesized. 3- Dendrites • Bring massages to the nerve cell from the surrounding • Makes numerous connections like a telephone network • They have the receptors which are specific to the neurotransmitters

36. Parts of a neuron 4- Terminal button • They resemble the end part of the axon and have some vesicles in which neurotransmitters are deposited • They are the end part of the neuron. 5- Ranvier nodes • They are at the end of the myelin coated nodes on the axon. • Signals transfer on them by one node to another node in which the velocity of signal transduction is increased • This myelin and Ranvier Nodes increase the signal velocity • İf there is no myelin coat ( unmyelinated fibres) velocity is slow) 6- Synaptic cleft • İt is a cleft in whicn neurotransmission takes place chemically • One side secretes the neurotransmitter other side takes the response through receptors • They are not in physical contact with both side

37. Parts of a neuron 7-Receptor • They are the aünotomic structures on the other side of the synapse which arespecific for the neurotransmitters • They are stimulated by the chemicals and chemicals must be over threshold, • When the receptor is stimulated ,the stimulus begins to travel in the exciter neuron and this neuron is called Second Neuron. • İn case of inhibitions stimuli do not progress in the second neuron,stimulus just ends at the point of synapse where inhibition is stimulated. • Synaptic cleft can be 1/20.000.000.000 m, • Stimulus transfer this distance to the receptor in miliseconds. • Stimulus travel through the long nerve axons at the same period.So if the amount of synapse on the road increase ,the period for stimulus transfer increase too much.

38. Neurotransmitters • Excitatory neurotransmitters; • Acethylcholine • Norepinephrine • Dopamine • Seratonin • Glutamic acid 2- İnhibitory neurotnansmitters • Gama amino butyric acid - G A B A, • Glycine ( inhibitor in the medulla spinalis)

39. Neuropeptides • Opioid peptides • Encephalines (leu encephaline-met encephalines) • Beta endorphines • Dynorphines 2- Substance –P Opioid peptides block their receptors 3- Acupuncture 4- Placebo effects

40. Neural impulse • When the neuron is at rest its potential is called the resting potential.İnside and outside difference is 70mv. • At this point intracellual Na ions move quickly to the extracellular compartment.Pozitive charges increase outside the cell (Resting potential). • İntracelluar compartment becomes more negatively charged .Difference is the resting potential. • When the nueuron is excited with neurotransmitters,Na ions quickly begin to move inward to the intracellular compartment, so extracelluar compartment loses positive charges and becomes negatively charged as compared to intracellular compartment. (Depolarization) • K ions begin to move outward to extracelluar compartment. This period is Repolarization.

41. Action potential • Action potential has three phase resting-depolarization and repolarization periods • This period is about a millisecond in duration. • Refractory period is the period in which the nerve cell can not be stimulated with the consecutive stimuli. At that point the nerve cell is already polarized buk not repolarized yet. Without polarization, depolarization is not possible. • Theshold: it is the amount of minimal energy that is required for the cell to be stimulated. Below threshold stimuli is not effective. Overthreshold stimuli stimulates the neurons. • When over threshold stimuli makes stimulation, the nerve is stimulated in the same way as it is stimulated with a high threshold stimuli. Once stimulated stimulation progresses even it is weak or high (All or None Law). • When we stimulate our skin with a cotton we feel a sensation, but when we stimulate the skin with a hammer we fell more than a stimulation like pain, because with hammer more than one nerve cell is stimulated.

42. Organization of the nervous system Nervous System Organization of the nervous system. Peripheric nervous system Central Nervous System Somatic nervous system Autonomic Nervous system Brain Medulla spinalis Servical8, Thoracal 12 Lomber 5 Sacral5 Cocygeal 1 Forebrain midbrain hindbrain a-Sympathetic nervous system b-parasympathetic Nervous system a-serebral korteks b-limbic lobe c-bazal ganglia d-Thalamus e-hypothalamus a-colliculus İnferior, b-colliculus Superior, a-serebellum b-Pons c-medulla oblongata

43. Major parts of the brain • Talamus: Projection center of all sensory fibres directs stimuli and keeps them alive in the brain Anterior,midline,lateral and posterior nucleus have different functions. • Hypothalamus:related to the endorcrine functions of the brain and it is formed by mamillary corpuscles,tuber cinerium,infundibulum,optic chiasm. • Limbic lobe: İt is related to affections,fear ,anger and smell taste. İt regulates the emotional living. • Hypocampus: İt is a memory deposit,alsa vigilanceanxiety and stress regulations are made from this center. • Amygdala=Related to emotional interactions Placidity,rage impulsion,etc. • Gyrus cinguli: regulates sexual relations and motivates getting pleasure • Septum:regulates emotions and conditioned reflexes and conditioned fear behaviors • Bulbus olfactorius=related to smell taste • Bazal ganglia= related to involuntary movements regulation. • Serebral cortex : frontal,temporal,parietal and occipital lobes • Central fissuri( Rolando),lateral fissure ( Sylvius) and parieto occipital fissure

44. Nervous system • A – C.N.S • Brain ( forebrain,mid,hind brain) • Medulla spinalis , 31 seg. • B-Peripheric nervous system Somatic nervous system Autonomous nervous system Sympathetic-Parasympathetic n.s.

45. Stimulates with • Parasympathetic N S Preganglioner stimulant = Acethylcholine Postsempathetic stimulant= Acethycholine • Sympathetic N S Preganglionic = acethylcholine postsempathetic= norepinephrine

46. Blockers • Parasympathetic blockers • Muscarinic receptors = Atropine • Nicotinic receptors = = Nicotine • Sympathetic blockers -alfa receptors are blocked isoprotorenol, -beta receptors are blocked by propranolol.

47. Reflex arc • Stimulus • Afferent fibres - posterior root -sensory, • Center - medulla spinalis, • Efferent fibres - anterior root - motor, • End organ Mostly muscle or a salivary gland.

48. Reaction • Reaction is different from a simple reflex mostly cortical thinking is present in a reaction. • Red light is seen • İt means to stop the car • Brain has prior knowledge about the red light and makes decision • End organ muscle contracts car stops.

49. İmportant parts of the brain • Frontal lobe • Temporal lobe • Parietal lobe • Occipital lobe • Thalamus • Hypothalamus • Limbic lobe amygdala and hippocampus septal nuclei, gyrus cinguli bulbus olfoctorius • Bazal ganglia nuc.striatum, nuc. caudatus

50. Motor areas • Primary motor area area 4 • Premotor area area 6 • Prim. sensorial projection area 3/1/2 area • Primary vizual area area 17 • Primary auditory area area 41 • Primary smell area uncus