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Explore levels of organization, cell functions, and homeostasis in human body systems. Learn about maintaining internal balance and controlling physiological variables through dynamic mechanisms. Understand the role of nervous and endocrine systems in regulating bodily activities.
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Levels of Organization • Chemical • Cellular • Tissue • Organs • System Level • Organismic Level
Body Systems • Groups of organs that perform related functions and interact to accomplish a common activity essential to survival of the whole body • Do not act in isolation from one another • Human body has 11 systems
Homeostasis • Defined as maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment • Does not mean that composition, temperature, and other characteristics are absolutely unchanging • Homeostasis is essential for survival and function of all cells • Each cell contributes to maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment
Basic Cell Functions • Sensing and responding to changes in surrounding environment • Control exchange of materials between cell and its surrounding environment • Obtain nutrients and oxygen from surrounding environment • Eliminate carbon dioxide and other wastes to surrounding environment • Perform chemical reactions that provide energy for the cell • Synthesize needed cellular components
Homeostasis • Body cells are in contained in watery internal environment through which life-sustaining exchanges are made • Extracellular fluid (ECF) - Fluid environment in which the cells live (fluid outside the cells) • Two components: • Plasma • Interstitial fluid • Intracellular fluid (ICF) - Fluid contained within all body cells
ICF ISF plasma organs external environment internal environment Balancing the Internal and External Environment Cells, the fundamental units of life, exchange nutrients and wastes with their surroundings: The intracellular fluid is “conditioned by”… the interstitial fluid, which is “conditioned by” … the plasma, which is “conditioned by” … the organ systems it passes through.
Homeostasis • Homeostasis involves dynamic mechanisms that detect and respond to deviations in physiological variables from their “set point” values by initiating effector responses that restore the variables to the optimal physiological range. • Two systems that maintain homeostasis are: Nervous system & Endocrine system
Maintenance of Homeostasis • Nervous system • Controls and coordinates bodily activities that require rapid responses • Detects and initiates reactions to changes in external environment • Endocrine system • Secreting glands of endocrine regulate activities that require duration rather than speed • Controls concentration of nutrients and, by adjusting kidney function, controls internal environment’s volume and electrolyte composition
Homeostasis Factors homeostatically regulated include • Concentration of nutrient molecules • Concentration of water, salt, and other electrolytes • Concentration of waste products • Concentration of O2 = 100mmHg and CO2 = 40 mmHg • pH = 7.35 • Blood volume 4-6 L and pressure 120/80 • Temperature = 37o C
Control of Homeostasis • Homeostasis is continually being disrupted by • External stimuli • heat, cold, lack of oxygen, pathogens, toxins • Internal stimuli • Body temperature • Blood pressure • Concentration of water, glucose, salts, oxygen, etc. • Physical and psychological distresses • Disruptions can be mild to severe • If homeostasis is not maintained, death may result
Homeostatic Control Systems • In order to maintain homeostasis, control system must be able to • Detect deviations from normal in the internal environment that need to be held within narrow limits • Integrate this information with other relevant information • Make appropriate adjustments in order to restore factor to its desired value
Homeostatic Control Systems • Control systems are grouped into two classes • Intrinsic controls • Local controls that are inherent in an organ • Extrinsic controls • Regulatory mechanisms initiated outside an organ • Accomplished by nervous and endocrine systems
Homeostatic Control Systems • Feedforward - term used for responses made in anticipation of a change • Feedback - refers to responses made after change has been detected • Types of feedback systems • Negative • Positive
Feedback Loops: Types • Negative feedback loop • original stimulus reversed • most feedback systems in the body are negative • used for conditions that need frequent adjustment • Positive feedback loop • original stimulus intensified • seen during normal childbirth
Negative Feedback Loop • Negative feed back loop consists of: • Receptor - structures that monitor a controlled condition and detect changes • Control centre - determines next action • Effector • receives directions from the control centre • produces a response that restores the controlled condition
Homeostatic Regulation of Body Temperature through Negative Feedback
Homeostasis – Negative Feedback Loop • Blood glucose concentrations rise after a sugary meal (the stimulus), the hormone insulin is released and it speeds up the transport of glucose out of the blood and into selected tissues (the response), so blood glucose concentrations decrease (thus decreasing the original stimulus).
Homeostasis of Blood Pressure • Baroreceptors in walls of blood vessels detect an increase in BP • Brain receives input and signals blood vessels and heart • Blood vessels dilate, HR decreases • BP decreases
Positive Feedback during Childbirth • Stretch receptors in walls of uterus send signals to the brain • Brain induces release of hormone (oxytocin) into bloodstream • Uterine smooth muscle contracts more forcefully • More stretch, more hormone, more contraction etc. • Cycle ends with birth of the baby & decrease in stretch
