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Aflatoxin Contamination: Occurrence and Management

Aflatoxin Contamination: Occurrence and Management. Thomas Isakeit Cooperative Extension, The Texas A&M University System. AFLATOXINS: WHAT ARE THEY?. - TOXIC CHEMICALS PRODUCED BY FUNGI ( Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus ) GROWING IN CROPS

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Aflatoxin Contamination: Occurrence and Management

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  1. Aflatoxin Contamination: Occurrence and Management Thomas Isakeit Cooperative Extension, The Texas A&M University System

  2. AFLATOXINS: WHAT ARE THEY? - TOXIC CHEMICALS PRODUCED BY FUNGI (Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus) GROWING IN CROPS - CAUSE DISEASE IN ANIMALS AND HUMANS (MYCOTOXICOSIS) - MAY BE PRODUCED IN THE FIELD OR AFTER HARVEST - AFFECT MANY TYPES OF CROPS

  3. TYPES OF AFLATOXINS STRUCTURE OF B1, THE MOST POTENT AFLATOXIN, SPECIFICALLY REGULATED IN SOME COUNTRIES ALSO: • B2, G1 AND G2 • M1 AND M2 IN MILK: SPECIFICALLY REGULATED

  4. AFLATOXIN TOXICITY - HUMANS • HEPATIC AND GASTROINTESTINAL INJURY • IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE • TERATOGENIC • ONCOGENIC • SEVERE LIVER INJURY, SOMETIMES FATAL (2-6 MG/DAY FOR A MONTH)

  5. AFLATOXIN TOXICITY - ANIMALS LUNG LESIONS IN A PIG POISONED BY AFLATOXIN • VARIOUS SYMPTOMS: FROM REDUCED GAIN TO DEATH • VARYING SENSITIVITY AMONG SPECIES

  6. AFLATOXIN POISONING FROM CORN – RECENT CASES • TEXAS, 1998: 25 DOGS DIED 100-200 PPB, FULL DIET FOR 90 DAYS • KENYA, 2004: 125 PEOPLE DIED, 192 POISONED DAMP STORAGE OF CORN, UP TO 8,000 PPB

  7. LOSS FROM AFLATOXIN IN TEXAS CORN IN 1998 • YIELD LOSS FROM DROUGHT • PRICE DROP ($2.20/BU vs. $2.80) • $407 MILLION VALUE W/O TOXIN • 18 – 31% CROP CONTAMINATION • TOXIN VALUE: $1.30 - $1.40 / BU $17 - $40 MILLION LOSS

  8. HISTORY IN TEXAS LOSING TURKEYS: “I CUT THEM OPEN AFTER THEY DIE AND FIND A BIG LIGHT COLLORD LIVER; THE GIZZARD IS ENLARGED, ALSO THE GALL IS TWICE AS LARGE AS SHOULD BE.” - LETTER TO FARM AND RANCH, MAY 19, 1917 FROM VAN ZANDT COUNTY, TX AFLATOXIN?

  9. HISTORY IN TEXAS J.J. Taubenhaus documents A. flavus as a pathogen

  10. PHOTO: G. ODVODY ASPERGILLUS EAR ROT A. FLAVUS IS A WEAK PATHOGEN THAT DOES NOT ALWAYS PRODUCE SYMPTOMS

  11. …CONSEQUENTLY, AFLATOXIN DETECTION REQUIRES A CHEMICAL ANALYSIS EXTRACTION PURIFICATION ANALYSIS DETECTION IS DIFFICULT!

  12. SAMPLING IS MORE DIFFICULT! CONTAMINATION IS NOT UNIFORM: - WITHIN A REGION - WITHIN A FIELD - ON A PLANT - WITHIN AN EAR - WITHIN A SEED

  13. AFLATOXIN DISTRIBUTION IN TEXAS 2002 CORN ACREAGE 2003 CONTAMINATION

  14. COMPILED BY: OFFICE OF THE TEXAS STATE CHEMIST

  15. COMPILED BY: OFFICE OF THE TEXAS STATE CHEMIST

  16. PHOTO: G. SCHUSTER AFLATOXIN IN AN EAR OF CORN CONCENTRATIONS ARE DIFFERENT FOR EACH KERNEL

  17. PHOTO: N. KELLER WHERE AFLATOXIN OCCURS IN A CORN SEED (SHOWN IN RED) AS SHOWN BY THE RED COLOR MUTANT, AFLATOXIN IS FOUND IN THE ALEURONE

  18. A SMALL PROPORTION OF CORN IS HIGHLY CONTAMINATED: 1 KERNEL WITH 400,000 PPB WILL MAKE A 10-LB SAMPLE MEASURE 26 PPB

  19. WHERE DOES THE FUNGUS COME FROM? BROWN & BROTZMAN, 1979, U. OF MO. MODIFIED FROM: WICKLOW, 1983, SO. COOP. SER. BUL. 279 • airborne infective spores • survival in soil Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content..

  20. SCLEROTIA OF A. FLAVUS DETAIL: RED BAR IS APPROX. 1 MM

  21. HOW THE FUNGUS ENTERS THE EAR • SPORES FALLING INTO WOUNDS CAUSED BY INSECTS (E.G. CORN EARWORM AND SOUTHWESTERN CORN BORER), OR CARRIED ON THEM • CAN GROW DOWN SILKS (NO WOUNDING NECESSARY), SHORTLY AFTER POLLINATION Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content..

  22. HOW THE FUNGUS ENTERS THE SEED A WOUND IS USUALLY NEEDED Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content..

  23. PHOTO: G. ODVODY SILK CUT STRESS-RELATED LOSS OF KERNEL INTEGRITY

  24. PREDISPOSING FACTORS FOR CONTAMINATION • DROUGHT • HIGH TEMPERATURES AT FLOWERING • INSECT INJURY • STRESS ON PLANT + INCREASE IN PATHOGEN REPRODUCTION Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content..

  25. FACTORS AFFECTING AFLATOXIN PRODUCTION • ACTIVITY DOES NOT START UNTIL KERNEL MOISTURE <32% • BEST RANGE IS 16-20% MOISTURE, 18% IS OPTIMAL • OPTIMAL 77-86o F, BUT FUNGUS GROWS WELL AT 97o F

  26. AFLATOXIN MANAGEMENT IN THE FIELD (PRE-HARVEST) - host resistance - insect control - cultural practices - biological treatment USE OF SEVERAL APPROACHES

  27. HOST RESISTANCE - TO INSECT, CONVENTIONAL & TRANSGENIC (Bt): NOT ENOUGH - TO FUNGUS: SOURCES IN LINES, NOT EASY TO INTRODUCE INTO HYBRIDS - IMPROVED HOST TOLERANCE TO STRESS

  28. PHOTO: G. ODVODY HUSK COVER IS A TRAIT ASSOCIATED WITH LESS AFLATOXIN

  29. HUSK COVER AND AFLATOXIN A TREND TOWARDS MORE AFLATOXIN WITH AN OPEN HUSK BETRAN & ISAKEIT, 2004. AGRON. J. 96:565 Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content..

  30. AFLATOXIN AND HYBRID MATURITY BETRAN & ISAKEIT, 2004. AGRON. J. 96:565 MORE AFLATOXIN WITH EARLY-MATURING VARIETIES Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content..

  31. AFLATOXIN AND MATURITY A TREND TOWARDS LESS AFLATOXIN IN HYBRIDS WITH A LONGER MATURITY BETRAN & ISAKEIT, 2004. AGRON. J. 96:565 Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content..

  32. CORN BREEDING AND AFLATOXIN EVALUATION FOR RESISTANCE REQUIRES MORE TIME AND LABOR THAN OTHER TRAITS

  33. PESTICIDE TREATMENTS INSECTICIDES TARGETED TO: - REDUCE PLANT STRESS (E.G. PRESCRIBE FOR ROOT INSECTS) - REDUCE EAR INJURY FUNGICIDES ARE NOT EFFECTIVE OR PRACTICAL

  34. CULTURAL PRACTICES • - PLANTING DATE • - PLANT POPULATIONS • - WEED & PEST CONTROL • IRRIGATION • TILLAGE TO BREAK HARD PAN • ADEQUATE FERTILITY

  35. CULTURAL PRACTICES WHATEVER YOU DO TO GET THE BEST CROP POSSIBLE DOES NOT CONFLICT WITH MYCOTOXIN MANAGEMENT

  36. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL • AF36 LABELED FOR COTTON IN TX AND AZ • AFLA-GUARD: GA PEANUTS • - APPLIED EARLY SEASON TO COVER FIELD • - AREA-WIDE TREATMENT • - CARRY OVER (PLACE/TIME)

  37. HARVEST PRACTICES • - SEGREGATE HARVEST OF “GOOD” AND “BAD” FIELDS • CHANGE COMBINE SETTINGS TO REMOVE DAMAGED SEED • EARLY HARVEST, FOLLOWED BY ARTIFICIAL DRYING • - CLEANING SEED AFTER HARVEST (E.G. DENSITY SEPARATOR)

  38. MYCOTOXINS IN INTACT AND DAMAGED/DISCOLORED KERNELS “GOOD”: 35 PPB AFLATOXIN 1 PPM FUMONISIN DAMAGED OR DISCOLORED: 270 PPB AFLATOXIN 9.3 PPM FUMONISIN REPRESENTATIVE DAMAGED KERNELS

  39. AFLATOXIN CONCENTRATION CAN INCREASE THE LONGER CORN IS LEFT IN THE FIELD DATA OF G. ODVODY

  40. AFLATOXIN: POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT • PROPER STORAGE CONDITIONS TO MINIMIZE INCREASE • BLENDING WITH “CLEAN” CORN – SUBJECT TO FEDERAL AND STATE REGULATIONS – CHECK FIRST! • CHEMICAL NEUTRALIZATION IS SUBJECT TO FEDERAL AND STATE LAWS – CHECK FIRST! Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content..

  41. STORAGE CONDITIONS • OBJECTIVE IS TO KEEP THE FUNGUS WITHIN THE GRAIN DORMANT • STORE CORN AT <15% MOISTURE AND KEEP OUT MOISTURE • PROPER OPERATION OF VENTILATION TO PREVENT MOISTURE CONDENSATION CAUSED BY UNEVEN TEMPERATURES IN BIN Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content..

  42. MOISTURE MIGRATION IN A BIN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE BIN LEAD TO AIR MOVEMENT, WITH MOISTURE CONDENSATION AT THE TOP OF THE BIN. PROPER VENTILATION WILL PREVENT THIS. DIAGRAM: ROSS ET AL., 1974 U. KY. AEN-20

  43. CHEMICAL TREATMENTS • AMMONIATION: SUBJECT TO STATE AND FEDERAL REGULATIONS • OZONATION: NOT COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE • ABSORBENT CLAYS ADDED TO FEED (E.G. NOVASIL): NOT YET APPROVED BBY REGULATORY AGENCIES Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 3. Aflatoxin content of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 4. Relationship between aflatoxin content and maturity. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content.. Figure 5. Husk cover of early, intemediate and full season hybrids Figure 6. Relationship between husk cover and aflatoxin content..

  44. ENTEROSORBENT CLAY ADDITIVE AFLATOXIN PRESENT IN FEED NOVASIL ADDED TO CONTAMINATED FEED PHOTOS: OFFICE OF THE TEXAS STATE CHEMIST

  45. AF+O3 CONTROL O3 CK AFLATOXIN APPEARANCE OF LIVERS OZONATION OF CONTAMINATED CORN: EFFECT ON GROWTH PHOTO: MCKENZIE ET AL. POULTRY SCI., 1998

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