What a wonderful world of possibilities have unfolded for the children Ralph Ellison

1. What a wonderful world of possibilities have unfolded for the children Ralph Ellison

2. Timeline of Court Cases1954-Present1954 Brown vs. Topeka Board of EducationBolling vs. Sharpe1955 Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education II1958 Cooper vs. Aaron1963 Gideon vs. Wainwright1964 Griffen vs. Prince Edward County1968 Green vs. New Kent County1969 Alexander vs. Homes County Board of Education1971 Swann vs. Charlotte-Mecklenburg CountyU.S. vs. Jefferson County Board of Education1973 Keyes vs. Denver School District No. 11974  Milliken vs. Bradley1976 Pasadena vs. Spangler1977 Milliken vs. Bradley II1986 Riddick vs. Norfolk City, Virginia School Board1991 Oklahoma City vs. Dowell1992 Freeman vs. Pitts1995 Missouri vs. Jenkins1999  Swann vs. Charlotte-Mecklenburg SchoolsCapacchione vs. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools

3. The history of Brown is dynamic. Assessing its impact is complex. Has Brown worked? If so, what is the evidence? If it has not worked, what was the flaw? What’s a better strategy? • Explore the consequences, choices, decisions and policies stemming from Brown and at the end, you are invited to make your own reflections relative to the promise of Brown – fulfilled or unfilled?

4. Pre-Brown Environment • Plessy v. F

5. The Strategy

6. The Brown Family

7. Brown V. Board of Education 1954 The Issue Before the Court Does racial segregation of children in public schools deprive minority children of equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment? Supreme Court Ruling: The Supreme Court ruled unanimously to end racial segregation in public schools. In 1955, the ruling known as “Brown II” called for desegregation with all deliberate speed. Source: http://www.pbs.org/jefferson/enlight/brown.htm

8. Did You Know? The case known as Brown was actually 5 cases from different parts of the country consolidated for argument before the Supreme Court. Brown was first because the names were alphabetically listed. Thurgood Marshall actually argued the case from South Carolina. Crucial to the argument was social science theory presented by Kenneth and Mamie Clark that even facilities that were physically equal did not take into account "intangible" factors, and that segregation itself has a deleterious effect on the education of black children

9. 1954 Thurgood Marshall with James Nabrit Jr. and George E.C. Hayes after their victory in the Brown v. Board of Education case before the Supreme Court, May 17, 1954. Brown Family. Eldest daughter Linda walked past a white public school a few blocks from her home, crossing dangerous railroad tracks and riding a bus for To attend her segregate school.

10. Nettie Hunt and her daughter Nickie on the steps of the U.S. Supreme Court in 1954, after the high court's ruling in the Brown v. Board of Education case that segregation in public schools is unconstitutional.Photo: Bettmann/Corbis

11. Mid 1950’s 1954 • Virginia's political establishment vows not to comply with the federal court ruling and declares it will maintain school segregation through a campaign that becomes known as "massive resistance." Virginia will close any white public schools that admit African-American students.

12. 1957 Little Rock Central High School was to begin the 1957 school year desegregated. On September 2, the night before the first day of school, Governor Faubus announced that he had ordered the Arkansas National Guard to monitor the school the next day. When a group of nine black students arrived at Central High on September 3, the were kept from entering by the National Guardsmen.

13. 1957

14. 1957 President Eisenhower sent in US troops to protect the students.

15. Schools in Prince Edward County Virginia closed from 1959 to 1964. White officials shut down the county's public schools rather than integrate http://www.vahistory.org/massive.resistance/photos/1/Diggs0027.jpg

16. Did You Know – 1950’s • Selected Jim Crow laws still in existence?

17. 1957President Dwight D. Eisenhower sends federal troops to ensure integration of the all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Ark.

18. Spottswood Thomas Bolling, Jr., twelve years old in 1951, was a Washington, D.C.student who could not attend a brand new junior high school reserved for whites near his home. The NAACP filed suit in his behalf in Bolling v. Sharpe, a case that became a companion to the better known Brown v. Board of Education.

19. 1956 - Gayle v. Browder TheSupreme Court declares city bus segregation laws unconstitutional, thereby ending Montgomery bus boycott. • 1955 - Rosa Parks, seated at the front of the "colored" section on a Montgomery bus, refused to give her seat to a white passenger and move farther back. Ms. Parks' arrest launched the 382-day Montgomery bus boycott and, in many respects, the contemporary civil rights movement. LDF assisted local counsel in defending her. http://www.naacpldf.org/welcome/timeline/1966_info.html

20. 1958 - Little Rock Nine - In Cooper v. Aaron, LDF won a Supreme Court ruling that barred Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus from interfering with the desegregation of Little Rock's Central High School. Subsequently, the "Little Rock Nine" were escorted to school for several months by the National Guard, which had been federalized by President Dwight D. Eisenhower. http://www.naacpldf.org/welcome/timeline/1966_info.html

21. 1960’s • Several Supreme Court Decisions ordered States to have plans • to racially balance schools and to have desegregation plans • that worked. • U.S. v. Jefferson County Board of Education (1966) • Green v. County School Board of New Kent Count • (1968)

22. Six year old Ruby Bridges being escorted to school in

23. Few more images related to school desegregation efforts (Maybe Hunter, Meredith, etc.) 1962 - Meredith v. Fair James Meredith finally succeeded in becoming the first African-American student admitted to the University of Mississippi through efforts of a legal team led by LDF attorney Constance Baker Motley. http://www.naacpldf.org/welcome/timeline/1966_info.html

24. Percentage of White Students in Schools Attended by the Average Black Student,1968-2000

25. 1960’s • Civil Rights Movement in Full Swing • Desegregation in other other areas follow • 1964 Civil Rights Acts - outlaws race and gender discrimination in voting, public accommodations, and employment. Title VI, which prohibits discrimination in education, becomes a major tool of desegregation efforts.

26. Greensboro North Carolina Sit-In • Students being refused service at luncheon counter reserved for white customers

29. February 1, 1960: After passing by Ralph Johns' store on Market Street, Ezell Blair Jr. (Jibreel Khazan), David Richmond, Joseph McNeil, and Franklin McCain enter the Elm Street Woolworth's at 4 p.m., purchase school supplies and "sundry" items. They then approach the lunch counter and order coffee at 4:30 p.m. They are refused service. The four remain in their seats until closing at 5 p.m.

30. Under heavy GUARD, James Meredith is escorted to registration at Ole Miss by Chief U.S. Marshal James McShane (left) and John Doar of the U. S. Justice Department.Mississippi -- 1962

31. Local Lawmen show what they plan to do to U.S. Marshals, sent to assure the admission of James Meredith as the first black student at the University of Mississippi ("Ole Miss").Mississippi 1962 Mississippi, 1962

32. Alabama 1963 • After being hit from behind and knocked down by a water hose, a woman is picked up and RESCUED by a fellow demonstrator.

33. "Birmingham, 1963" • In April 1963 Martin Luther King, Jr., helped launch a series of nonviolent demonstrations in Birmingham, Alabama. Police Commissioner Eugene "Bull" Connor personally supervised a brutal effort to break of the peaceful marches, arresting hundreds of demonstrators and using fire hoses, tear gas, electric cattle prods, and, in this case, attack dogs, as much of the nation watched televised reports in horror. These events and images helped bring the growing movement to something of a climax. Source: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/history/brinkley/3651/3651_syllabus.html

34. In Birmingham, anti-segregation demonstrators lie on the sidewalk to protect themselves from firemen with high PRESSURE water hoses. One disgusted fireman said later, "We're supposed to fight fires, not people."

35. Official Program For the March On Washington

36. Civil Rights Movement in Full Swing • Over 250,000 people participated. Martin Luther King was the keynote speaker.

37. Did You Know – 1960’s

38. Busing -- 1970’s In 1970 a U.S. judge in North Carolina ordered that black students be bused to white schools and that white students be bused to black schools. This crosstown "school busing," it was hoped, would end the de facto segregation of public schools caused by white students living in predominantly white neighborhoods and black students living in predominantly black neighborhoods.

39. Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education No. 281 SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES 402 U.S. 1 October 12, 1970 April 20, 1971 [*] CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUIT Syllabus The Charlotte-Mecklenburg school system, which includes the city of Charlotte, North Carolina, had more than 84,000 students in 107 schools in the 1968-1969 school year. Approximately 29% (24,000) of the pupils were Negro, about 14,000 of whom attended 21 schools that were at least 99% Negro. This resulted from a desegregation plan approved by the District Court in 1965, at the commencement of this litigation. In 1968, petitioner Swann moved for further relief based on Green v. County School Board,391 U.S. 430 , which required school boards to . . . --------------------------------------- http://www2.law.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/foliocgi.exe/historic/query=[group+case+information!3A][group+402+u!2Es!2E+1!3A]/doc/{@48919}/hit_headings/words=4?

40. Richmond’s public schools implemented a massive busing plan1971 1971 North Carolina case of Swann vs. Charlotte-Mecklenberg Board of Education, the Supreme Court granted federal judges the authority to order district wide busing to desegregate schools It was the spring of 1971, and the Supreme Court had just approved busing as a tool to desegregate the schools. http://www2.richmond.com/styleweekly/output.cfm?ID=1605282

41. Keyes v. Denver in 1972      This case actually started in of 1869.  It was the first ruling on school segregation in the Northern and Western states.  The schools were accused of intentional segregation in the school system.      It all started when children in Denver schools challenged the school's policy of racial segregation.  The  courts  found that the schools were in fact segregated and the whole school district was presumed illegally segregated Keyes v. Denver in 1972      This case actually started in of 1869.  It was the first ruling on school segregation in the Northern and Western states.  The schools were accused of intentional segregation in the school system.      It all started when children in Denver schools challenged the school's policy of racial segregation.  The  courts  found that the schools were in fact segregated and the whole school district was presumed illegally segregated Keyes v. Denver in 1972This case actually started in of 1869.  It was the first ruling on school segregation in the Northern and Western states.  The schools were accused of intentional segregation in the school system.     It all started when children in Denver schools challenged the school's policy of racial segregation.  The  courts  found that the schools were in fact segregated and the whole school district was presumed illegally segregated

42. Fall, 1972 All grades in Little Rock public schools are finally integrated.

43. 1973 – Attention Swifts to the North • In Keyes v. Denver School District No. 1, 413 U.S. 189 (1973), the Supreme Court considers the problems of Northern metropolitan segregation for the first time, as well as the rights of Latinos to desegregated education. • Justice Powell argues that the harm of segregation is the same whether school segregation is mandated by law (de jure segregation) or produced by other factors (de facto segregation). However, he argues that busing as a remedy should be significantly limited. • Source: http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/jbalkin/brown/1973.html

44. 1974 In 1974, the court invalidated a desegregation plan that involved busing students between heavily black Detroit and its heavily white suburbs. There could be no remedies across district lines for racial imbalance within district lines, without proof that the lines themselves were drawn for racially discriminatory reasons. The case, Milliken vs. Bradley, was a turning point, for it deemed that voluntary "white flight" from urban centers was beyond the power of the courts to remedy.

45. Whites expressed their disapproval of busing on opening day in 1974 by urging their children to boycott classes. The boycott was 90 percent effective. When black students walked out of the school to get on the buses and ride back to their homes in Roxbury, a black ghetto, they were pelted with stones. Once on the buses, the students were hit by shattered glass as hostile crowds of whites threw heavier stones through the bus windows.

46. Black students board a school bus in this September 12, 1974 photo outside South Boston High School as a police officer stands guard.

47. Judge Arthur Garrity issues a plan to desegregate Boston's public schools, ordering the busing of 21,000 students. In response, race riots erupt in high schools in Hyde Park, Roxbury, and South Boston.

48. Antibusing Riot Boston, 1974

49. A Year of Turmoil: 1974

50. Anti Busing DemonstrationApril 5, 1976 Stanley Forman’s Pulitzer Prize winning photo was published in the Boston Herald This picture shows a white man ramming a flagpole, with American flag attached, into the chest of a black man during a demonstration over the enforced busing of schoolchildren from Dorchester to South Boston.