VA631

1. VA631 JHPatel

2. Analysing Existing Situation against Permissible levels to Identify excess Cost-benefit analysis and the Precautionary Principle can lead in radically different directions. For example, many western people argue that the consequences of genetic modification are uncertain, that real harm is possible, and hence that stringent regulation is readily justified. By contrast, many Americans respond that the likely benefits of genetic modification are far greater than the likely harms and that stringent regulation is therefore unsupportable.

3. Analysing Existing Situation against Permissible levels to Identify excess The tension between CBA and the Precautionary Principle raises serious questions about the theory and practice of environmental protection. To engage in cost-benefit analysis, regulators must make difficult and often speculative judgments about the likely effects of alternative regulatory strategies. The easiest task is often the identification of costs, but even here there are formidable empirical problems. It is difficult to project the expense of regulations of different levels of stringency, especially because environmental protection often spurs technological innovation, greatly reducing the cost of pollution reduction. The identification of benefits presents even harder empirical problems and knotty normative and conceptual ones as well. At a minimum, agencies must estimate the savings that are likely to result from regulation, including reductions in mortality and morbidity, along with improvements in terms of visibility, recreation, aesthetics, animal welfare, property values, and more.

4. Analysing Existing Situation against Permissible levels to Identify excess Rationales for environmental damage determination: From previous overviews of international, it is obvious that economic instruments have been developed on the basis of legal frameworks. In combination with existing legal instruments for environmental protection, including national standards for environmental quality, or for discharge levels, the compensation levels should be applied on the basis of environmental damages according to following aspects:

5. Analysing Existing Situation against Permissible levels to Identify excess - environmental damages caused to individual or all environmental components including water, soil and air, and to community health; - pollutants should be categorized by effluents and emissions; - environmental costs should be divided into two categories: compensation costs and investment in environmental remedy or environmental control and treatment facilities, including both capital and operational funds. Compensation levels should be determined on the basis of environmental damage scope and level that have been defined.

6. Environmental damages can be divided into various categories on the basis of various sources causing environmental damages and their consequences. Sources causing damages may include those sources which generate hazardous and non-hazardous substances which are likely to contaminate soil, water and air environmental quality.Human effects include health impacts, reduced aesthetic values, and increased environmental sensitivity.Environmental damages may lead to extinction of fauna and flora species, and complete damages of natural resources. Therefore, there are many types of pollution damages, and specific damages would be determined according to specific pollution types such as air pollution or water contamination. Generally, direct damages caused by pollution typesmay be categorized, as follows:

7. i) Human health damages that may be under forms of illness or other injuriescaused by exposures to pollutants; ii) Property losses caused by corrosion of metal structures, nuisance of public places that requires cleaning up, reduction of land use values, decrease in crop productivity and fishing catches, etc. iii) Damages caused to natural environment and disrupted ecosystems; iv) Damages caused by losses of landscape, hedonic and entertainment values,or beach closure.

8. A formula below is used to calculate environmental damage level: where - ΣDkt is a total damage in terms economic value and natural base in a given area where environmental accidents occurred and an economic damage is determined by measuring values and inventories. - ΣDph is a total environmental remedy cost incurred in environmental rehabilitation (responsive + remedy costs); -Σ Dh is a total costs incurred in medical treatment or health care services provided for affected people; - ΣDxh is a total socio-economic losses that are suffered by local residents and laborers within a given damaged region, including labor, incomes and otherservices.

9. Determination of costs to be paid by industries or production units that operate without environmental control facilities or with poor treatment efficiencies Compensation costs include three categories: + Costs of human health damages; losses of properties and crop productivity, fishing, disrupted ecosystems; losses of landscape, hedonic and entertainment values. These payments must be obligatory since damages caused by poor environmental compliance by industries. + Costs incurred in environmental remedy or for treatment including capital investment and O&M costs; + Costs incurred in administrative arrangements.

10. Determination of damage costs within the first category (direct environmental and community health damages): These damages must be defined by four items as described in par. In cases that these are not directly defined, may be applied according to imperial approaches, as follows: As conceptualized that the more pollution loads excessively increase, the more damage is, and hence, damages can be calculated by a percentage of costs of the second category.

11. As conceptualized that the more pollution loads excessively increase, the more damage is, and hence, damages can be calculated by a percentage of costs of the second category. Other countries' experiences show that environmental damagecost incurred in the absence of environmental control facilities in the case of Japan, would be many folds of costs that had incurred in their installation. For example, damage costs by SO2 pollution caused to the Japanese atmosphere (1982) was ten times higher than costs that had invested in air pollution controlinstallations; In case of the Minamata catastrophe, the cost was hundred times higher. In our country, if one fold is employed, an amount to be paid would be so large that polluters can't be affordable.

12. Calculation methods of costs of the second category: Calculation of costs in this category can be carried out according to pollution loads discharged into the environment that had been controlled. The calculation may be performed by five steps below: + Step 1 : selection of pollution loads: this can be calculated by sources and standard loads discharged on the basis of measuring or monitoring values by typical types of industries; + Step 2: determination of load factors by individual pollutants. This factor is subject to types of industrial enterprises, types of pollutants and damage levels caused to air or water environment by individual pollutants; For the air environment, air pollutants or parameters include particulate, particles, SO2, NO2, hydrocarbons, F, H2S, metals, PAH, organic toxins. For the water environment, major pollutants or parameters include SS, BOD, salinity, grease and oil, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Organic toxins, metals, particularly heavy metals.

13. + Step 3: Determination of types of environmental receptors: • - For water environment, the determination of receptors is performed by; fixed methods by CPCB GOI • For air environment: the determination is done by fixed methods by CPCB GOI • + Step 4: Determination of fee or compensation levels to be paid: • For water contamination ( by Thai's experience): • Fee (Rupees/month) = (investment costs x discharge volume) + (operational cost • x BOD load) = (fxl + fo + fd......

14. fxl - construction and equipment costs per discharge unit, dong/m3; fo - costs of piping/ conductor per discharge unit, dong/m3; fd - land use costs for treatment installation per discharge unit, dong/m3; Q - Discharge volume, m3/month; fvh - Operational costs, d/kg BOD; T- BOD load excessive permissible levels, kg/month; Lo - BOD concentration at outfalls, kg/m3; L1 - BOD concentration at permissible discharge level according to (kg/m3). For the A grade receiving bodies, Lt= 0.02 + Step 5: Payment to the environmental fund.

15. Determination of administrative fees: it is obligatory to any enterprises, however levels of fee payments depend on pollution loads identified. To calculate the fee levels, Australian experience may be referred. These fees must be paid to the environmental fund. The fund will be used for costs incurred in pollution treatment, environmental quality improvement, compensations to affected people. In a short-term period, the fee may be used as administrative payments. Determination of compensation levels to environmental accidents: procedures for compensation will be carried out according to the norms of the country

16. Alternative methods to reduce pollutants to permissible level through technical process + Step 1 : Establishment of damage evaluation panels including representatives from local people's committees, DoSTE, Police, affected people, causers, relevant environmental research institutions, which will make relevant legal documents or minutes; + Step 2: Development of on site investigation methods and damage evaluation plans. For example, four factors may be considered in cases of oilspills, as follows: - Dispersion of spilled oils ( polluted area); - Concentrations of spilled oil in water, soil and vegetation; - Persistent periods of pollutants; - Pollution receptors. + Step 3: Implementation of field surveys and laboratory analysis and calculation by modeling, and reporting. - Field survey results; - Results gained from computer modeling; - Comparison with field survey results; - Assessment of environmental impacts caused by the accident; - Sudden changes in chemical properties in air, soil and water environmental components caused by the accident. + Step 4: Negotiation of compensation to damages. + Step 5 : Payments to the environmental fund in addition to compensation paid

17. In principle, economic losses may be determined by subsequent activities, as follows: 1. Setting up of comprehensive EIA reports to scope impacts and identify impacted environmental components caused by the accident; 2. Screening of major impacted components and affected people; 3. Measuring, analysis and comparison of affected components according to the extent of impacts; 4. valuation in monetary terms of all losses occurred to environmental resources by summing up of total resource damage, health recovery, environmental remedy and other indirect socio-economic costs incurred. This calculation is assumed on the basis of affected resources belonging to the State ownership. 5. Calculation of total economic losses caused by the accident and proposed compensation modalities to be applied to pay affected people and/or relevant economic sectors.

18. Social –Cost benefit Analysis of solution proposed Investment Investment of Metro: Im Investment reduced due to Metro Private buses: Ibpri Public buses: Ibpub Personal vehicles (cars and two-wheelers): Ipv Savings in Investment Cost of Road Infrastructure: Iri Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Charges O & M charges of Metro: Om O & M charges reduced due to Metro due to fewer vehicles on road and decongestion Private buses: Obpri Public buses: Obpub Personal vehicles (cars and two-wheelers): Opv Revenue Revenue of Metro: Rm Tax Revenue to Government: Rt Revenue loss due to Metro Private buses: Rbpri Public buses: Rbpubfit a

19. Social –Cost benefit Analysis of solution proposed Cost Flows of Delhi Metro Benefit and Benefits Reduction in pollution: Bpp Due to reduction in number of vehicles on road Due to reduction in congestion on roads Savings in travel time: Bstt Due to reduction on congestion on roads Due to reduction in travel time for Metro passengers Reduction in accidents: Bra Foreign Exchange Costs and Benefits Investment cost: Imf Savings in fuel cost: Bf

20. Social –Cost benefit Analysis of solution proposed The flows of net economic benefits (NEB) of DM to the various economic agents could be computed as follows: Government: NBg= (Rm + Obpub + Ibpub + Iri + Rt) – (Im + Om + Rbpub + Rt) Passengers: NBp=((Rbpri+ Rbpub) - Rm) + Bst + (Ipv + Opv) + Bra Transporters: NBt = Obpri - Rbpri Unskilled labour: NBul = (1 – PDUL) (Iml + Oml) (1) General public: NBgp = Bpp + (PI-1) (sg NBg + sp NBp + stNBt +sul NBul + sgp NBgp) + (PF –1) (Bf – Imf) - PIUL( Iml + Oml) where, sg, sp, st, sgp and sul represent respectively average rates of savings of government, passengers, transporters, general public and unskilled labour and PDUL: Ratio of marginal productivity of labour and project wage rate PI: Shadow price of investment PF: Ratio of shadow price of foreign exchange and market exchange rate PIUL: ratio of indirect opportunity cost of labour and project wage rate

21. Social –Cost benefit Analysis of solution proposed The annual economic benefits of DM could be computed as NEB = NBg + NBp + NBt + NBUL+ NBgp (2) Finally, the estimates of annual flows of social benefits of DM are obtained by applying the estimates of income distributional weights to the incomes accruing to various economic agents from the Metro. Given the estimates of flows of annual economic benefits to the various agents described in Table 9, the net annual social benefits after accounting for income distributional effects of DM could be computed as, NSB = wg . NBg + wp . NBp + wt . NBt + wUL . NBUL+ wgp . NBgp (3) Two methods are used for the estimation of net present value of economic benefits (NPEB), the social cost-benefit ratio and the social rate of return of DM in this study.

22. Social –Cost benefit Analysis of solution proposed Savings in passenger time The savings of travel time of passengers traveling by the Metro instead of by road are calculated as the product of the number of passengers traveled daily and the time saved on the average passenger lead in Delhi. In the case of residual passenger traffic on road, RITES (1995a) has estimated the daily time saving by the passengers due to decongestion using the following formula: where, T: time saving on average daily run D: daily run of vehicles (in km) Sc: average speed in congested situation (without Metro). Sd: average speed in decongested situation (with Metro)

23. Social –Cost benefit Analysis of solution proposed The values of the parameters D, Sc, Sd for cars, buses, taxis, 2- wheelers and 3- wheelers, along with the estimates of T for the first phase of the project are summarized in Table 16. On the basis of these values, the estimates of value of time/person traveling by buses or other vehicles are arrived at (RITES, 1995a). These are Rs. 5.96/hr and Rs. 7.91/hr, respectively. Passenger time saving per annum for mass transport is then calculated as the product of daily passengers carried, time saved on average lead on an annual basis and the value of time of metro passengers. In the case of other vehicles, the total time saving is given by the product of the total number of passengers on residual vehicles, time saving on average lead on an annual basis and value of time.

24. Social –Cost benefit Analysis of solution proposed Savings due to fewer accidents The Road User Cost Study (CRRI, 1982) later updated by Dr. L. R. Kadiyali et. al. in association with the Loss Prevention Association of India provides estimates of the cost of various accidents on road. Components like gross loss of future output due to death/major injury, medical treatment expenses, legal expenses, administrative expenses on police, insurance companies and the intangible psychosomatic cost of pain were included in the estimation. In the case of buses and other public vehicles, the loss due to lay off period and unproductive wages paid to the crew are also included. The costs (at 2004 prices) under different heads are reported in the Table 18. These studies have found that the following relationships exist between the number of vehicles affected and the number of persons killed and injured in road accidents. Y1= 49.43X + 750.42 R2= 0.89 Y2= 257.04X + 3181.41 R2= 0.90 where, X: number of vehicles affected in lakhs Y1: number of persons killed in road accidents in a particular year Y2: number of persons injured in road accidents in a particular year

25. Assuming that the above relationships hold and given the number of vehicles that are expected to go off the road (diverted traffic) due to the Metro, the reduction in fatalities and accidents is estimated. For instance, in the year 2011-12, the diverted traffic forcars equals 164252, while the corresponding values for two-wheelers and buses are 985789 and 9450 respectively. The values of reduction in fatalities and injuries, as derived from the above equation are reported in Table 18. The total benefit owing to the lesser number of fatalities and injuries is reflected in the total savings in compensationpaid. Next, the study also reports the estimated relationship between the number of accidents resulting in damage to property and number of vehicles on road as, Y= 143.63X + 3345 R2 = 0. 84 where, X: number of vehicles on road Y: number of vehicles causing damage to property

26. Equity and Social Benefits of Metro The Metro in Delhi has resulted in significant income distribution among various economic agents affected by it. As shown in Table 20, while on the one hand, the government, unskilled labour, public and the passengers have gained, on the other private transporters have suffered substantial losses. The social benefits of the Metro could be estimated by assigning the appropriate income distributional weights to the incremental changes in incomes of these agents due to the project. Murty and Goldar (2006) describe a method of estimating these weights and provide their estimates for the incomes of people belonging to different income classes in the economy.

27. The ISO 14000environmental management standards exist to help organizations minimize how their operations negatively affect the environment (cause adverse changes to air, water, or land), comply with applicable laws, regulations, and other environmentally oriented requirements, and continually improve on the above.

28. The material included in this family of specifications is very broad. The major parts of ISO 14000 are: ISO 14001 is the standard against which organizations are assessed. ISO 14001 is generic and flexible enough to apply to any organization producing any product or service anywhere in the world. ISO 14004 is a guidance document that explains the 14001 requirements in more detail. These present a structured approach to setting environmental objectives and targets and to establishing and monitoring operational controls. These are further expanded upon by the following: ISO 14020 series (14020 to 14025), Environmental Labeling, covers labels and declarations. ISO 14030 discusses post-production environmental assessment. ISO 14031 Evaluation of Environmental Performance. ISO 14040 series (14040 to 14044), Life Cycle Assessment, discusses pre-production planning and environment goal setting.

29. ISO 14050 terms and definitions. ISO 14062 discusses making improvements to environmental impact goals. ISO 14063 is an addendum to 14020, discussing further communications on environmental impact. ISO 14064-1:2006 is Greenhouse gases – Part 1: Specification with guidance at the organization level for the quantification and reporting of greenhouse gas emissions and removals. ISO 14064-2:2006 is Greenhouse gases – Part 2: Specification with guidance at the project level for the quantification, monitoring and reporting of greenhouse gas emission reductions and removal enhancements. ISO 14064-3:2006 is Greenhouse gases – Part 3: Specification with guidance for the validation and verification of greenhouse gas assertion. ISO 19011 which specifies one auditprotocol for both 14000 and 9000 series standards together. This replaces ISO 14011 meta-evaluation—how to tell if your intended regulatory tools worked. 19011 is now the only recommended way to determine this.

30. ISO 19011 is an international standard that sets forth guidelines for: • qualitymanagement systemsauditing • environmentalmanagement systemsauditing • It is developed by the International Organization for Standardization. • The standard offers four resources to organizations to "save time, effort and money": • A clear explanation of the principles of management systems auditing. • Guidance on the management of audit programmes. • Guidance on the conduct of internal or external audits. • Advice on the competence and evaluation of auditors.

32. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM STEP 1 - ASPECTS (ACTIVITIES) IDENTIFICATION STEP 2 - IDENTIFYING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS STEP 3 - SCREENING QUESTIONS FOR ACTIVITY/IMPACT COMBINATIONS

36. purpose of the Environmental Management Plan is to: •Identify priorities; • Set objectives and targets • Define performance indicators; • Document strategies and time frames to achieve targets; • Allocate responsibilities and identify the necessary resources to enable realisation of the overall plan; • Establish mechanisms to monitor, evaluate and report progress.

37. Nine Step in ENV. Management as per ISO 14001 1Define what has to be done 2Form the basis of plan 3Obtain management Agreement 4Assesmble a working Group 5Seek Employee Feed back 6Set dead Lines 7Communicate 8Provide visible Sign and Programme 9see people as shade green

38. Procedure of Environmental Management • Control Non-conformities • Management Review • Corrective Action • Documental data • Internal Audit

39. The Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle of management systems.

40. Continual improvement cycle of the 5 core elements of ISO 14001.

41. The five major elements of ISO 14001 are Environmental Policy; Planning; Implementation & Operation, Checking & Action and Management Review. Implementation of ISO 14001 requires an organisation to specify its policy, identify the environmental aspects and impacts, set objectives and targets including commitment to comply with all appropriate legislation, define procedures to achieve the targets and objectives, implement the plan, check and take corrective measures as per set procedures. This standard also requires an organisation to review its system for time to time. ISO 14001 views the environmental policy as the driving force of the whole environment management system, and requires the commitment of the top management to comply with all relevant laws, pollution prevention and continual improvement. The policy is required to be developed carefully and according to the nature and scale of the operations, and is communicated to all employees and public. Once the policy is in place, the planning process starts next. This includes identifying all actual or potential environmental aspects (those activities, products and services that interact with the environment) and their associated impacts. Of these impacts, the significant ones are to be identified. Then, the objective and targets are to be set, based on the commitments made in the policy including the legal requirements related to environment that the organisation must meet and the significant aspects/impacts. The management plan prepared subsequently details out the responsibilities, describe the means and time frame within which the objectives and targets are to be achieved.

42. To achieve the management plan, it will be required to have a proper structure and attach specific responsibilities to the employees across different levels. While assigning these responsibilities, the competence levels of the employees will be kept in view and therefore the training needs will also be identified to implement a management plan, internal communication of the purpose of the environmental management systems within the rank and file of the company will be necessary. As in any other management system, good documentation, operational aspects and their control is closely linked to the effectiveness of the system. These are covered in the element, "Implementation and Operation" that follows the plan exercise. The system also requires that a mechanism for checking, correcting and improving the system be in place. The organisation is required to have procedures to measure, monitor and, if anything goes wrong, to deal with non-compliance. As in any documentation system, records generated during day-to-day operations must be identifiable, traceable, retrievable and protected from damage/loss. EMS audits are to be carried out both internally and by third-party registration agencies. The final element of the EMS specification is the Management Review. The top management has to assess whether any changes are needed in the policy, objectives or other elements of the EMS reviews information from all sources. Based on the review, the continual improvement of the EMS and hence the environmental performance is to be ensured

43. : Summary of ISO 14000 Series of standards level-wise and area-wise Applicable at Organisational Level Table 1: Summary of ISO 14000 Series of standards level-wise and area-wise

45. Applicable to Products and Services

46. Applicable to Products and Services TR: Technical Report; DIS: Draft International Standard; WD : Working Document CD: Committee Draft; FDIS: Final Draft International Standard

47. Applicable to Products and Services

49. Environmental Management System of An Air Port Edmonton Airports has an established Environmental Management System (EMS) to ensure operations and activities at the Edmonton International Airport are conducted in an environmentally responsible manner, and to ensure EA’s environmental policies are satisfied. The basic framework of the EMS is compatible with the requirements of ISO 14001 to assist in achieving continual improvement in environmental performance and to ensure EA consistently meets environmental, regulatory, community and employee obligations.

50. The EMS components are, but not limited to, the following: • Environmental Management Plan • Policies • Programs & SOPs • Auditing • Communication • Reporting • Training • Objectives • Business Plan