‘ Biology of Crime ’ Psychophysiological Factors Neuropsychological Factors PART 2

1. ‘Biology of Crime’Psychophysiological FactorsNeuropsychological FactorsPART 2

2. Evolutionary Psychology Is is a way of thinking about human behavior using an evolutionary theoretical framework. how particular genes (attributes, traits) came to be present in our species in the first place. Ultimate (distal) explanations ask questions about function and adaptation for an entire species “why did humans develop the capacity for speech, emotion, or aggression? Identifying evolutionary function of behaviors that contribute to survival of individuals

3. Darwinism Charles Darwin wrote: On the Origin of Species (1859) Darwin made two key points in his book: • Species did not all exist in their current form but evolved or transformed from ancestral species • Evolutionary mechanism for this transformation was natural selection

4. Evolutionary Psychology Humans intimately tied to animal ancestry Human aggression and violence is a result of innate, biological needs to obtain sufficient food supplies, territory, status, and mates Human cognitive and emotional processes have been selected in our evolutionary environment as devices for solving particular adaptive problems faced by hunters and gatherers

5. Historical ContextSelection Process – Hunters and Gatherers Ancestral environment comprised of various adaptive problems (finding mate, hunting, gathering, protecting children, avoiding predators, finding shelter) ‘hunters’ and ‘gatherers’ who successfully responded to adaptive problems survived and lived long enough to reproduce children and pass successful adaptations on to next generation Unsuccessful responses resulted in death or reduced capacity to reproduce A successful adaptation – be it biological or psychological, is in an individual’s genetic makeup so the only way adaptations can be passed on is through genetic rather than cultural transmission

6. Evolution by Natural Selection Natural selection “selects” the favorable variants and preserves them in later generations. Natural selection continuously adjusts populations to their environments; we call these adjustments adaptations.

7. The Evolution of Criminal Behavior: Crime is Normal? If criminal behavior is normal, it must have some evolutionary advantage on our distant ancestors. It is the traits underlying criminal behavior not the specific acts that are the alleged adaptations.

8. The Evolution of Criminal Behavior: Crime is Normal Criminal behavior is a way to acquire valued resources by exploiting and deceiving others. Although we all have the potential to exploit and deceive others, we are a highly social and cooperative species. Some evolutionary theories of crime focus on sexuality as the prime motivator of human behavior.

9. The Evolution of Criminal Traits The two strategies that any species can follow to maximize reproductive success: Parenting effort: That proportion of the total reproductive effort invested in rearing offspring. Mating effort: That proportion allotted to acquiring sexual partners.

10. Strategies to Maximize Reproductive Success People are designed to desire things and experience emotions that increase reproductive success Parenting effort: proportion of total reproductive effort invested in rearing offspring Because female reproductive success hinges more on parenting effort than mating effort, females have evolved higher levels of the traits that facilitate it Mating effort: proportion allotted to acquiring sexual partners (locating, courting and having sex) Men expend more mating effort than women

11. Men’s Mating Efforts/Sexual Coercion More likely to be sexually coercive when costs are low (wartime), when women are perceived as adversaries, when too intoxicated to calculate possible delayed costs, when men are unconcerned about future relationship with a particular woman Sexually coercive men have history of uncommitted sexual relationships and greater difference for partner variety Sexual preference: a woman of a fertile age; attractiveness; woman early to late twenties; prototypical hip to waist ratios All geared toward female reproductive capability

12. Sex in Relation to Crime ‘Young-male’ syndrome of competitiveness with ultimate goal being reproductively successful to compete must be young, risk-taking and often violent Crime decreases with age as does testosterone Testosterone levels are very high during young age Crimes of violence committed by males typically against other males Homicide often committed by young men of poor socioeconomic status resulting from verbal altercations Demonstrates that crime is fundamentally related to inter-male competition that has ultimate roots in ‘reproductive rivalry’

13. Risk-Taking and Homicide High mating effort is correlated with risk taking and antisocial behaviors in both genders Early sexual intercourse in boys and girls Risk-taking is one of best predictors of adolescent pregnancy High mating effort and antisocial behavior characterize adolescence Homicides occur as result of altercations arising from arguments, insults, jostling, rivalries, cursing, etc. Man’s reputation depends largely on ability to maintain a credible threat of violence Homicide perpetrators are responding to perceived reputational or status threats e.g., duels often led to status enhancement among prominent men in America; tribesmen – “a man without valor is a worthless man, a man who has not killed”

14. Kinship & Crime Two predictions concerning perceived crime severity: Crimes are more serious: To the degree that the victim of any crime is genetically related to the perpetrator Heterosexual sexual coercion when there is a close genetic relationship between the victim and perpetrator e.g., murder among blood relatives is relatively rare across societies and historical eras, particularly given the opportunity for such murders

15. Major Critiques of Evolutionary Psychology Determinism – evolution not useful because of its determinist nature Cannot change what happened in ancestral environment, so how can we use theory about past to solve current problems? Ignores environmental factors since it relies on theory that everything is in the genes and genes are immutable Naturalistic fallacy: legitimizes aggression and violence along with myriad of social injustices…e.g., views females as needy competitors for male attention

16. Biosocial Perspectives on Criminality

17. Summarizing Biosocial Perspectives and Theories Theory Key Concepts Strengths Weaknesses Behavior genetics perspective Genes affect behavior in interaction with environmental influences. Heritability estimates the relative contribution of genetic and environmental factor traits affecting criminality. All individual traits are at least modestly influenced by genes. Looks at both the genetic and environmental risk factors for criminal behavior Understanding genetic contributions also identifies the complementary contributions of environmental factors. Requires twin samples of twins and/or adoptees, which are difficult to come by. While general environmental factors are identified, behavior genetics does not specify what they are. Evolutionary psychology perspective Human behavior is rooted in evolutionary history. Natural selection has favored victimizing tendencies in humans, especially males. These tendencies arose to facilitate mating effort but are useful in pursuing criminal behavior as well. Criminals emphasize mating effort over parenting effort more than males in general. Ties criminology to evolutionary biology. Mating effort helps to explain why males are more criminal than females and why criminals tend to be more sexually promiscuous than persons in general. Emphasizes that crime is biologically “normal” (although regrettable) rather than pathological. Gives some the impression that because crime is considered “normal,” it is justified or excused. Makes assumptions about human nature that may or may not be true. While recognizing that culture is important, it tends to ignore it.

18. Summarizing Biosocial Perspectives and Theories Theory Key Concepts Strengths Weaknesses Neuroscience perspective Whatever its origin, all stimuli are channeled through the brain before given expression in behavior. The development of the brain is strongly influenced by early environmental experiences, especially those involving nurturance and attachment. Shows how environmental experiences are physically “captured” by the brain. Emphasizes the importance of nurturing for optimal development of the brain. Uses sophisticated technology and provides “harder” evidence. High cost of neuroimaging studies is a drawback. Very small samples of known criminals are often used, thus limiting generalizations. Linking specific brain areas to specific behaviors is problematic. Reward dominance theory Behavioral activating system (BAS) and behavioral inhibiting system (BIS) are dopamine and serotonin driven, respectively. Among criminals, the BAS tends to be dominant over the BIS. This BIS/BAS imbalance can lead to addiction to many things, including crime. Explains why low serotonin is related to offending (low serotonin = low self-control). Explains why criminality is persistent in some offenders because they develop a taste for the “thrill of it all.” The neurological underpinnings of the BAS and BIS have been difficult to precisely identify. Studies difficult and expensive to conduct. Prefrontal dysfunction theory Frontal lobes control long-term planning and temper emotions and their expressions. Criminals have frontal lobes that fail to function as they do in most people, especially in terms of inhibiting actions that harm others. Explains why moral reasoning is inversely related to involvement in persistent criminality. Explains why criminality has been linked to frontal lobe damage and to abnormal brainwaves. Dysfunction of the prefrontal lobes remains difficult to precisely measure, even with fMRI scans. Same sampling difficulties noted for the neurosciences in general.

19. Minor Physical Anomalies (MPAs) • related to disruption in prenatal environment • often not noticeable • some research relates MPAs to neurodevelopmental disorders – schizophrenia, autism • some correlation w/ temperamental & behavioral attributes in children (ADHD, learning disabilities, aggressiveness, clumsiness) • High # MPAs found in active, aggressive & impulsive school children (conduct disorder) • Overall, disruptions in normal development of nervous system may render individual at some risk to engage in violent behavior

20. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) FASD is the range of effects (i.e., physical, mental, behavioral, and learning disabilities) that can occur in an individual whose mother drank alcohol during pregnancy.

21. Consequences FASD can cause mental retardation, facial deformities, stunted physical and emotional development, behavioral problems, memory and attention deficits, impulsiveness, an inability to reason from cause to effect; a failure to comprehend the concept of time; and an inability to tell reality from fantasy. Secondary disabilities develop over time because of problems adapting to the environment.

22. Epidemiology of FASD Health Canada Estimates that 1 to 2 per 1000 children born with FAS in Canada Estimated incidence of partial FAS and ARND (Alcohol Related Neurodevelopmental Disorder) is 3-5 times greater than FAS.

23. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) Partial Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Alcohol Related Neurodevelopmental Disorder (ARND) Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (with or without confirmation of maternal drinking) Alcohol Related Birth Defects (ARBD)

24. According to Health Canada (2002), during any given week in Canada… 10,000 babies are born, of these: 3 babies are born with Muscular Dystrophy 4 babies are born with HIV infection 8 babies are born with Spina Bifida 14.2 babies are born with Down Syndrome 20 are born with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome 100 are born with ARND FAS Community Resource Center

25. Specific diagnoses Alcohol + Brain = Alcohol Related Neurodevelopmental Disorder (ARND) Alcohol + Brain + some facial features = partial Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (pFAS) Alcohol + Brain + facial features + growth deficiency = Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

26. Growth Deficiency Distinctive Facial Features Short eye opening Long flat Philtrum (thin upper lip) Flat cheek bones Flat bridge of nose Prenatal and/or postnatal Length vs. weight Brain Dysfunction Small head Behavioral problems Intellectual/learning problems speech/language delays Developmental delays Other neurological abnormalities memory, seizures Alcohol + Brain + physical/facial criteria + growth deficiency = Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

27. A baby with FAS; lifetime medical and welfare costs are calculated at $5 million.

28. Physical abnormalities are visible in children with FAS, though not in some children with Partial FAS or ANRD. Generally, children with FAS have a smaller head circumference and low birth weight, and they may fail to thrive. Their facial features are distinctive and diagnostically significant, in that they are a sign of brain damage, although there may be brain damage without the visible facial effects. • Dr. Sterling Clarren, one of the world's leading FASD researchers, of the University of Washington in Seattle, told a conference in 2002, “I have never seen anybody with this whole face who doesn't have some brain damage. In fact in studies, as the face is more FAS-like, the brain is more likely to be abnormal. The only face that you would want to counsel people or predict the future about is the full FAS face. But the risk of brain damage increases as the eyes get smaller, as the philtrum gets flatter, and the lip gets thinner. The risk goes up but not the diagnosis.”

29. Associated Features Epicanthal folds Short palprebral fissure Low nasal bridge Minor ear anomalies Indistinct philtrum Thin upper lip Micrognathia Facies in Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Discriminating Features In the young child

30. Infant Brains

31. The regions of the brain that can be most affected by prenatal alcohol exposure in terms of ability to function include: Corpus Callosum - passes information from the left brain (logic/language) to the right brain (creativity/ feelings) and vice versa. Smaller, almost nonexistent in exposed brains. Hippocampus - plays a fundamental role in memory. Hypothalamus - controls appetite, emotions, temperature, and pain sensation Cerebellum - controls coordination and movement, behaviour and memory.

32. The Corpus Callosum Connects right and left sides to allow communication between the hemispheres

33. Regions of the Brain impacted Basal Ganglia affects spatial memory and behaviours like perseveration and the inability to switch modes, work toward goals, predict behavioural outcomes, and the perception of time. Frontal Lobes controls impulses and judgment. The most noteworthy damage to the brain probably occurs in the prefrontal cortex, which controls what are called the Executive Functions.

34. A) inhibition B) problem solving C) sexual urges D) planning E) time perception F) internal ordering G) working memory H) self-monitoring I) verbal self-regulation J) motor control K) regulation of emotion L) motivation M) judgment A) socially inappropriate behavior, as if inebriated B) inability to figure out solutions spontaneously C) inability to control sexual impulse, esp. in social situations D) inability to apply consequences from past actions E) difficulty with abstract concepts of time and money F) like files out of order, difficulty processing information G) problems with storing and retrieving information H) needs frequent cues, requires “policing” by others I) needs to talk to self out loud, needs feedback J) fine motor skills more affected than gross motor K) moody “roller coaster” emotions, exaggerated L) apparent lack of remorse, needs external motivators M) inability to weigh pros and cons when making decisions Executive functions of the prefrontal cortex: Effects of alcohol exposure on behavioursrelated to executive functions:

35. Domains of Brian Dysfunction Cognitive Executive Functioning/Abstract Reasoning Memory Communication

36. Neurodevelopmental Disabilities Associated with FASD: ALARM Adaptive Skills Language Attention Reasoning Memory

37. Adaptive Behavior Behavior that is effective in meeting the natural and social demands of one’s environment - able to function independently - satisfactorily meet the cultural demands of personal and social responsibility

38. Can tie a double bow shoelace Knows emergency phone number Uses phone without assistance Can count change to a dollar Reties untied lace before stepping on the escalator Recognizes emergency Doesn’t make unauthorized calls Understands the value of items. Acquired Skill Adaptive Behavior

39. Sustains attention in individual and group activity Learns to delay gratification Flexibility Able to end activities to start a new ones Learns incidentally Generalize from experience Takes others perspectives Handles stress of day to day living Easily distracted/short attention span; fatigues easily Delayed rewards not effective Perseverates/Rigid Difficulty with transitions and new routines Weak general information Repeats same mistake Egocentric Poor coping skills Adaptive Learning Typical FASD youth

40. Skill Equivalent: Actual Age 18 Living skills Social skills Reading (decoding) ability Physical maturity Emotional maturity Money, time concepts Comprehension of language Expressive language

41. Implications for CJS Deficits: Language Slow to process language (concrete and literal) and may not understand the equivalence of words Acquiescence Yield to leading questions Poorer reading comprehension, math and verbal reasoning

42. Implications for CJS Deficits: Attention and Reasoning Unable to anticipate consequences/learn from experience (connection between cause and effect?) Learns exception rather than the rule Difficulty generalizing Easily led; victimized

43. Implications for CJS Deficits: Memory Short and long term deficits Confabulation Problems of sequencing False Confession Desire to please people in authority

44. Secondary Disabilities of FASD Employment/joblessness (70-85%) Homelessness (Dependency Living 85%) Trouble with the law (52-68%) Confinement (43-55%) Early school drop-out (53-69%) Mental health concerns (90+%) Inappropriate Sexual Behavior (43-52%) Unplanned pregnancies, parenting problems Sex Trade, HIV risk, Premature death Alcohol and drug issues (40%)

45. Personal Safety Concerns Does unpredictable or dangerous things Easily approached by strangers Public transportation? Safe sex?

46. Prevalence of Mental Health Disorders among those with FASD

47. Prevalence of Mental Health Disorders among those with FASD

48. Inappropriate Sexual Behavior Prevalence is doubled for those who have been victims of sexual abuse (65% vs. 35%) Females are more likely to be sent to therapy Males are more likely to be sent to jail

49. FASD and Youth Correctional Involvement: 1995-1996 Study in BC FASD Diagnoses Among 287 Remanded Youth = 67 = 23.3% (3 full FAS; 64 FAE). IQ’s much lower 58% of controls Average vs. 32% of FASD; 16.4% Low Average vs. 32.8% of FASD; 9% Borderline vs. 18% for FASD.

50. Current Family/Living Situation