Background informations

9. Unlike the Sadducees who were chosen almost exclusively from among the aristocracy, the Pharisees were mainly members of the middle class. They were like the businessmen merchants and the tradesmen of their day. This might account for the large number of Talmudic references dealing with the intricacies of commercialism. The Pharisees were deeply concerned with following after the law and had thus separated themselves from the great mass of the populace (the so called "people of the land" Heb. "am ha-aretz") by their strict adherence to the minutia of their legal tradition. The average Pharisee had no formal education in the interpretation of the law and accordingly had resorted to the professional scholar, the scribe (of which class the majority were Pharisees), in legal matters. The vast majority of the Pharisees were laymen, yet a small number of the Pharisees were also Priests and Levites, who had committed to the Pharisaic ideals in order to help make pure more of the common people. The Pharisees, like the Essenes, were very separated and had organized themselves into distinct and closed communities. The "haburah," (community) referred to in the Talmudic materials was most likely a Pharisaic community, and the "haber," (companion) was a member of the community, a Pharisee. Apparently several of these "holy communities" existed within Jerusalem, where they could be seen by the masses and thus made their influence much more effective. Admission into these communities was strictly regulated. A candidate must first agree to a vow of obedience to all of the detailed legislation of the Pharisaic tradition including: tithing, ceremonial laws and dietary purity. He then entered a period of probation (one month to one year) during which he was carefully observed with respect to his vow of obedience. Successful completion of this probation entitled the candidate to full membership in the community. Each community was under the leadership of a scribe, who served as the professional authority in the interpretation of the law and other less important officers. All members were carefully scrutinized, criticized when they fell short and highly praised when they observed accurately. There were regularly scheduled meetings for worship (usually on the eve of the Sabbath). They studied the Torah and had community meals. Most likely the pseudepigraphon known as the Psalms of Solomon was used liturgically in their worship services. The synagogue was also a place for the Pharisees to show their piety. Pharisaism influenced a large number of the masses, many of whom inclined toward the views of the Pharisees without taking upon themselves full membership in the community. It is amazing how close the closed communities of the Pharisees were to the Essene separatist groups, known today particularly from the Damascus Document, and also, to a lesser extent, known through the Qumran Manual of Discipline. The Pharisees and the Essenes no doubt had much in common, in goals and methodologies as well as in the common environment that constituted the motivating force of both movementsUnlike the Sadducees who were chosen almost exclusively from among the aristocracy, the Pharisees were mainly members of the middle class. They were like the businessmen merchants and the tradesmen of their day. This might account for the large number of Talmudic references dealing with the intricacies of commercialism.

11. Josephus [37-ca 100 CE] 2.  Three Jewish Sects  119  For among Judeans there are three forms of philosophy. Now Pharisees are one sect, Sadducees another, but in fact the third, called Essenes, seems to be the most reverential discipline.     --- Josephus, Jewish War 2.119  12.  Argument over Oral Torah  297  For now I wish only to explain that the Pharisees transmit to the people some rules in line with the fathers, which were not written in the laws of Moses. And because of this, the line of the Sadducees reject these things. They say that it is necessary to hold those rules that have been written but it is not (necessary) to observe what is (only) from the fathers' tradition. And, as a consequence, controversies and great disagreements have occurred between them.  298  The Sadducees persuade only the well-to-do and have no popular following. But the Pharisees have the masses as allies.     -- Josephus, Antiquities 12.297-298  18.  Principles & Popularity of Pharisees  12  The Pharisees live thriftily, giving in to no luxury. For they follow what the Word* (of God) in its authority determines and transmits as good. They believe that to keep what (God) wished to counsel is worth fighting for.  13  Out of respect, they defer to those advanced in years. Nor are they so bold as to stand in opposition to what (the elders) have proposed.  14  While claiming that everything is affected by destiny, they do not deprive human will of power in these things. For it occurred to God to make a combination and to admit to his counsel the will of men---with its virtue and its vice. Their belief is that there is an undying power in souls and that, under the ground, there is an accounting to reward and punish those who were righteous or unrighteous in (this) life. Eternal punishment is offered to the latter, but re-creation in a new life to the former.  15  Because of these ideas, (the Pharisees) are the most persuasive among the citizens. And all the sacrifice and prayer offered to God happens to be according to their exegesis (of scripture). In this way, those who live in the cities have witnessed to their virtue in devoting themselves to all the best in their words and way of life.     --- Josephus, Antiquities 18.12-15 Josephus [37-ca 100 CE] 2.  Three Jewish Sects  119  For among Judeans there are three forms of philosophy. Now Pharisees are one sect, Sadducees another, but in fact the third, called Essenes, seems to be the most reverential discipline.     --- Josephus, Jewish War 2.119  12.  Argument over Oral Torah  297  For now I wish only to explain that the Pharisees transmit to the people some rules in line with the fathers, which were not written in the laws of Moses. And because of this, the line of the Sadducees reject these things. They say that it is necessary to hold those rules that have been written but it is not (necessary) to observe what is (only) from the fathers' tradition. And, as a consequence, controversies and great disagreements have occurred between them.  298  The Sadducees persuade only the well-to-do and have no popular following. But the Pharisees have the masses as allies.     -- Josephus, Antiquities 12.297-298  18.  Principles & Popularity of Pharisees  12  The Pharisees live thriftily, giving in to no luxury. For they follow what the Word* (of God) in its authority determines and transmits as good. They believe that to keep what (God) wished to counsel is worth fighting for.  13  Out of respect, they defer to those advanced in years. Nor are they so bold as to stand in opposition to what (the elders) have proposed.  14  While claiming that everything is affected by destiny, they do not deprive human will of power in these things. For it occurred to God to make a combination and to admit to his counsel the will of men---with its virtue and its vice. Their belief is that there is an undying power in souls and that, under the ground, there is an accounting to reward and punish those who were righteous or unrighteous in (this) life. Eternal punishment is offered to the latter, but re-creation in a new life to the former.  15  Because of these ideas, (the Pharisees) are the most persuasive among the citizens. And all the sacrifice and prayer offered to God happens to be according to their exegesis (of scripture). In this way, those who live in the cities have witnessed to their virtue in devoting themselves to all the best in their words and way of life.     --- Josephus, Antiquities 18.12-15  Josephus [37-ca 100 CE] 2. Three Jewish Sects 119 For among Judeans there are three forms of philosophy. Now Pharisees are one sect, Sadducees another, but in fact the third, called Essenes, seems to be the most reverential discipline.   --- Josephus, Jewish War 2.119 12. Argument over Oral Torah 297 For now I wish only to explain that the Pharisees transmit to the people some rules in line with the fathers, which were not written in the laws of Moses. And because of this, the line of the Sadducees reject these things. They say that it is necessary to hold those rules that have been written but it is not (necessary) to observe what is (only) from the fathers' tradition. And, as a consequence, controversies and great disagreements have occurred between them. 298 The Sadducees persuade only the well-to-do and have no popular following. But the Pharisees have the masses as allies.   -- Josephus, Antiquities 12.297-298 18. Principles & Popularity of Pharisees 12 The Pharisees live thriftily, giving in to no luxury. For they follow what the Word* (of God) in its authority determines and transmits as good. They believe that to keep what (God) wished to counsel is worth fighting for. 13 Out of respect, they defer to those advanced in years. Nor are they so bold as to stand in opposition to what (the elders) have proposed. 14 While claiming that everything is affected by destiny, they do not deprive human will of power in these things. For it occurred to God to make a combination and to admit to his counsel the will of men---with its virtue and its vice. Their belief is that there is an undying power in souls and that, under the ground, there is an accounting to reward and punish those who were righteous or unrighteous in (this) life. Eternal punishment is offered to the latter, but re-creation in a new life to the former. 15 Because of these ideas, (the Pharisees) are the most persuasive among the citizens. And all the sacrifice and prayer offered to God happens to be according to their exegesis (of scripture). In this way, those who live in the cities have witnessed to their virtue in devoting themselves to all the best in their words and way of life.   --- Josephus, Antiquities 18.12-15 Josephus [37-ca 100 CE] 2. Three Jewish Sects 119 For among Judeans there are three forms of philosophy. Now Pharisees are one sect, Sadducees another, but in fact the third, called Essenes, seems to be the most reverential discipline.   --- Josephus, Jewish War 2.119 12. Argument over Oral Torah 297 For now I wish only to explain that the Pharisees transmit to the people some rules in line with the fathers, which were not written in the laws of Moses. And because of this, the line of the Sadducees reject these things. They say that it is necessary to hold those rules that have been written but it is not (necessary) to observe what is (only) from the fathers' tradition. And, as a consequence, controversies and great disagreements have occurred between them. 298 The Sadducees persuade only the well-to-do and have no popular following. But the Pharisees have the masses as allies.   -- Josephus, Antiquities 12.297-298 18. Principles & Popularity of Pharisees 12 The Pharisees live thriftily, giving in to no luxury. For they follow what the Word* (of God) in its authority determines and transmits as good. They believe that to keep what (God) wished to counsel is worth fighting for. 13 Out of respect, they defer to those advanced in years. Nor are they so bold as to stand in opposition to what (the elders) have proposed. 14 While claiming that everything is affected by destiny, they do not deprive human will of power in these things. For it occurred to God to make a combination and to admit to his counsel the will of men---with its virtue and its vice. Their belief is that there is an undying power in souls and that, under the ground, there is an accounting to reward and punish those who were righteous or unrighteous in (this) life. Eternal punishment is offered to the latter, but re-creation in a new life to the former. 15 Because of these ideas, (the Pharisees) are the most persuasive among the citizens. And all the sacrifice and prayer offered to God happens to be according to their exegesis (of scripture). In this way, those who live in the cities have witnessed to their virtue in devoting themselves to all the best in their words and way of life.   --- Josephus, Antiquities 18.12-15

16. Name "Pharisee" is from a Greek word (pharisaios) taken from the Heb/Aramaic "Perisha" meaning "Separated one." In the time of Jesus the Pharisees were one of the three chief Jewish sects, the others were the Sadducees and the Essenes. Of the three, the Pharisees were the most separated from the ways of the foreign influences that were invading Judaism, and from the ways of the common Jewish people in the land. The Pharisee "There was probably no town or village inhabited by Jews which had not its Pharisees, although they would, of course, gather in preference about Jerusalem with its Temple, and what, perhaps would have been even dearer to the heart of a genuine Pharisee--its four hundred and eighty synagogues, its Sanhedrims (great and small), and its schools of study. There could be no difficulty in recognising such an one. Walking behind him, the chances were, he would soon halt to say his prescribed prayers. If the fixed time for them had come, he would stop short in the middle of the road, perhaps say one section of them, move on, again say another part, and so on, till, whatever else might be doubted, there could be no question of the conspicuousness of his devotions in market-place or corners of streets. There he would stand, as taught by the traditional law, would draw his feet well together, compose his body and clothes, and bend so low "that every vertebra in his back would stand out separate," or, at least, till "the skin over his heart would fall into folds" (Ber. 28 b). The workman would drop his tools, the burden-bearer his load; if a man had already one foot in the stirrup, he would withdraw it. The hour had come, and nothing could be suffered to interrupt or disturb him. The very salutation of a king, it was said, must remain unreturned; nay, the twisting of a serpent around one's heel must remain unheeded." – Alfred Edersheim Origin and History The sect of Pharisees is thought to have originated in the 3rd century B.C., in days preceding the Maccabean wars, when under Greek domination and the Greek effort to Hellenize the Jews, there was a strong tendency among the Jews to accept Greek culture with its pagan religious customs. The rise of the Pharisees was a reaction and protest against this tendency among their fellow kinsmen. Their aim was to preserve their national integrity and strict conformity to Mosaic law. They later developed into self-righteous and hypocritical formalists. Later they were among those who had condemned Jesus to death. How fearfully the prophecy of destruction that Jesus had foretold was fulfilled! In a few brief years the Roman legions of the Emperor Titus utterly destroyed the city and its glorious Temple. Over a million Jews perished in the siege in a few days, and a hundred thousand more were taken away in captivity. Without its marvelous Temple, the Jewish religion was forced to take on a new character, and after the final Jewish rebellion (132 A.D.) all hope of rebuilding the Temple was lost, and the work of these rabbis took a different direction. The Mishnah, compiled by the Patriarch Judah (200 A.D.), which is the final work of these rabbis, began a final work in the history of Jewish scholarship. It is a monument of Pharisaic scholarship and a testimony to the final triumph of Pharisaism, which now is compiled into the Talmud which has become synonymous with Judaism. Jesus and the Pharisees The Pharisees were the most numerous and influential of the religious sects of Jesus’ day. The were strict legalists. They stood for the rigid observance of the letter and forms of the Law, and also for the Traditions. There were some good men among them, no doubt, but for the most part they were known for their covetousness, self-righteousness and hypocrisy. Scribes were copyists of the Scriptures and because of their minute acquaintance with the Law they became recognized authorities. They were sometimes called "lawyers." Scribes and Pharisees were the religious leaders of the nation. The incredible influence of the Pharisees among the masses cannot be mistaken. The were the most honored in Judaism at the time of Christ. When Christ won the favor of the people. "But the great crowd of people went on hearing Him gladly." The Words spoken by Jesus in Matt 23 constitute the most bitter denunciation that ever fell from His lips. The enemies of Jesus could not answer Him a word, nor did anyone ever again dare to ask Him anything. The Pharisees were unrepentant, hypocritical, and more determined than ever to seek His destruction. In His final public discourse in the Temple, it was fitting that He should warn His disciples against the hypocrisy of these corrupt and wicked men. Even while He denounced their spiritual blindness, ritualism, and wickedness, He wept over Jerusalem, and ended His discourse with a lamentation, addressed to the beloved but doomed city which had sinned away its day of opportunity. Name "Pharisee" is from a Greek word (pharisaios) taken from the Heb/Aramaic "Perisha" meaning "Separated one." In the time of Jesus the Pharisees were one of the three chief Jewish sects, the others were the Sadducees and the Essenes. Of the three, the Pharisees were the most separated from the ways of the foreign influences that were invading Judaism, and from the ways of the common Jewish people in the land.

23. The Sadducees are thought to have originated about 200 B.C., during the time between the recorded Old and New Testaments when The Maccabees controlled Judah. The Pharisees probably originated during the same period. They lasted until the Roman Legions destroyed the Temple (see Temples) in Jerusalem in 70 A.D. (see Fall of Jerusalem In 70 A.D.) The name Sadducee is believed to have originated from 3 possibilities: (1) Those of Zadok. They claim descent from Zadok, a high priest during the time of King David. (2) The righteous ones, based on the Hebrew word for righteous. (3) Judges or controllers, from the Greek word syndikoi. Very little has survived from the Sadducees. The only record of them is found in the New Testament, plus some writings from the Jewish-Roman historian Flavius Josephus, and a few scattered rabbinic texts. The first reference to them in The Bible is by John The Baptist, a highly righteous man of God. When a group of Sadducees and Pharisees came out to John where he was baptizing by the Jordan, he said to them, "You brood of vipers! Who warned you to flee from the wrath to come? Bear fruit that befits repentance, and do not presume to say to yourselves, 'We have Abraham as our father'; for I tell you, God is able from these stones to raise up children to Abraham." (Matthew 3:7-9 RSV). John, and later Jesus Christ Himself, did not think very highly of the Sadducees. Why? Because by that time the Sadducees had become proud, self-righteous, Hypocrites. The Lord said to have nothing to do with them, or their teachings (Matthew 16:11-12). Other known facts about the Sadducees: The Sadducees believed that there was no Resurrection (Matthew 22:23) - thereby denying even The Lord's own resurrection from The Tomb. The Sadducees' religious philosophy could not stand up to the authority of Jesus Christ - they were silenced by it (Matthew 22:34). The Sadducees took part in the set-up and arrest of Jesus Christ That Fateful Night (Matthew 16:21; 26:1-3, 59; Mark 8:31; 15:1; Luke 9:22; 22:66). The Sadducees later attempted to prevent Peter and John from preaching the Gospel, and had them thrown into jail (Acts 4:1-4). They were jealous and fearful of The Apostles (Acts 5:17). The Sadducees claimed that angels and The Spirit World do not exist (Acts 23:8). The Sadducees are thought to have originated about 200 B.C., during the time between the recorded Old and New Testaments when The Maccabees controlled Judah. The Pharisees probably originated during the same period. They lasted until the Roman Legions destroyed the Temple (see Temples) in Jerusalem in 70 A.D. (see Fall of Jerusalem In 70 A.D.) The name Sadducee is believed to have originated from 3 possibilities: (1) Those of Zadok. They claim descent from Zadok, a high priest during the time of King David. (2) The righteous ones, based on the Hebrew word for righteous. (3) Judges or controllers, from the Greek word syndikoi. Very little has survived from the Sadducees. The only record of them is found in the New Testament, plus some writings from the Jewish-Roman historian Flavius Josephus, and a few scattered rabbinic texts. The first reference to them in The Bible is by John The Baptist, a highly righteous man of God. When a group of Sadducees and Pharisees came out to John where he was baptizing by the Jordan, he said to them, "You brood of vipers! Who warned you to flee from the wrath to come? Bear fruit that befits repentance, and do not presume to say to yourselves, 'We have Abraham as our father'; for I tell you, God is able from these stones to raise up children to Abraham." (Matthew 3:7-9 RSV). John, and later Jesus Christ Himself, did not think very highly of the Sadducees. Why? Because by that time the Sadducees had become proud, self-righteous, Hypocrites. The Lord said to have nothing to do with them, or their teachings (Matthew 16:11-12). Other known facts about the Sadducees: The Sadducees believed that there was no Resurrection (Matthew 22:23) - thereby denying even The Lord's own resurrection from The Tomb. The Sadducees' religious philosophy could not stand up to the authority of Jesus Christ - they were silenced by it (Matthew 22:34). The Sadducees took part in the set-up and arrest of Jesus Christ That Fateful Night (Matthew 16:21; 26:1-3, 59; Mark 8:31; 15:1; Luke 9:22; 22:66). The Sadducees later attempted to prevent Peter and John from preaching the Gospel, and had them thrown into jail (Acts 4:1-4). They were jealous and fearful of The Apostles (Acts 5:17). The Sadducees claimed that angels and The Spirit World do not exist (Acts 23:8).

29. Sadducees differ from Pharisees  164  Now the Sadducees, the second party, deny destiny altogether and place God beyond doing or seeing anything bad. They say that good and bad are dependent on human choice; and one may allow each of these according to one's own decision.  165  They deny the soul's permanence as well as rewards and punishments in the underworld.  166  Now the Pharisees love one another and practice consensus in their community. But the Sadducees behave rather aggressively even towards each other. And they are as harsh in debates among themselves as with others.     --- Josephus, Jewish War 2.164-166  Sadducees differ from Pharisees 164 Now the Sadducees, the second party, deny destiny altogether and place God beyond doing or seeing anything bad. They say that good and bad are dependent on human choice; and one may allow each of these according to one's own decision. 165 They deny the soul's permanence as well as rewards and punishments in the underworld. 166 Now the Pharisees love one another and practice consensus in their community. But the Sadducees behave rather aggressively even towards each other. And they are as harsh in debates among themselves as with others.   --- Josephus, Jewish War 2.164-166

31. Who Were The Sadducees?The Sadducees were members of the priestly families; their authority was based upon position and birth. It was a tradition that their leader, the high priest, must be from the tribe of Levi and the family of Zadok. The Sadducees only accepted the written Torah as the authoritative law. They interpreted the Written Law rigidly and literally, and held the Prophets and other writings of less value than the Torah. They completely rejected interpretations made by local rabbis. The Sadducees’ theology held the ancient sacrificial system of the Temple in the highest regard. They offered worship that brought God down to the people. In their eyes, worship was an act of reverence to the divine ruler, not an exercise of understanding. Their religious practice focused on Temple rituals above the study of the Law or worship in synagogues. Their Power The Sadducees exercised immense authority in the nation’s daily life both politically and economically through the means of the Temple. Their position as priests became the Sadducees’ source of power. The common people respected the Temple and its rituals, so the Sadducees’ interest in Temple rituals allowed them to control the common people. Apparently, the Sadducees failed to apply the standards of purity and holiness from the Temple to other areas of life. As they adopted the lifestyle of the Hellenistic world, the Sadducees became increasingly secular, powerful, and wealthy. The Sadducees and JesusMany points of contention existed between the Sadducees and Jesus. The Sadducees denied the concept of life after death, bodily resurrection, and most doctrines concerning the existence of angels and demons—all concepts that appeared in Jesus’ teaching. Jesus’ life and ministry often angered the Sadducees. Jesus resisted the practices the Sadducees used to influence the common people. And his open concern for the poor and needy posed a threat to the Sadducees’ affluent lifestyle. The Sadducees were also frustrated when Jesus used Scripture that they considered to be authoritative as the basis for his arguments against them. The End of the SadduceesUp until the time the Temple was destroyed in AD 70, the Sadducees opposed the Pharisees and the church in every way possible. Interestingly, when the Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed, the Sadducees ceased to exist.  Who Were The Sadducees?The Sadducees were members of the priestly families; their authority was based upon position and birth. It was a tradition that their leader, the high priest, must be from the tribe of Levi and the family of Zadok. The Sadducees only accepted the written Torah as the authoritative law. They interpreted the Written Law rigidly and literally, and held the Prophets and other writings of less value than the Torah. They completely rejected interpretations made by local rabbis. The Sadducees’ theology held the ancient sacrificial system of the Temple in the highest regard. They offered worship that brought God down to the people. In their eyes, worship was an act of reverence to the divine ruler, not an exercise of understanding. Their religious practice focused on Temple rituals above the study of the Law or worship in synagogues. Their Power The Sadducees exercised immense authority in the nation’s daily life both politically and economically through the means of the Temple. Their position as priests became the Sadducees’ source of power. The common people respected the Temple and its rituals, so the Sadducees’ interest in Temple rituals allowed them to control the common people. Apparently, the Sadducees failed to apply the standards of purity and holiness from the Temple to other areas of life. As they adopted the lifestyle of the Hellenistic world, the Sadducees became increasingly secular, powerful, and wealthy. The Sadducees and JesusMany points of contention existed between the Sadducees and Jesus. The Sadducees denied the concept of life after death, bodily resurrection, and most doctrines concerning the existence of angels and demons—all concepts that appeared in Jesus’ teaching. Jesus’ life and ministry often angered the Sadducees. Jesus resisted the practices the Sadducees used to influence the common people. And his open concern for the poor and needy posed a threat to the Sadducees’ affluent lifestyle. The Sadducees were also frustrated when Jesus used Scripture that they considered to be authoritative as the basis for his arguments against them. The End of the SadduceesUp until the time the Temple was destroyed in AD 70, the Sadducees opposed the Pharisees and the church in every way possible. Interestingly, when the Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed, the Sadducees ceased to exist.

37. Essenes One of three leading Jewish sects mentioned by Josephus as flourishing in the second century B.C., the others being the Pharisees and the Sadducees. Concerning their origin, history, and tenets there has been much inconclusive controversy. The only ancient authorities we have are a few paragraphs in Philo Judeaeus, a somewhat lengthier description in Josephus, and a scanty notice in Pliny. The following synopsis is derived mainly from the first two. They are styled Essæi by Philo, who derives it from hosios, "holy", and Essæi and Esseni by Josephus. Their numbers according to both authors was about 4000 and their chief place of residence along the west side, but away from the shore, of the Dead Sea. They also dwelt in other, but mostly secluded, parts and small towns of Palestine; yet some were found in cities. The sect arose about 150 B.C. (the first-named Essene is Judas, 110 B.C.) and disappeared towards the end of the first century A.D. They worshipped one God, Creator and Ruler of all things, omnipotent and omniscient. Moses was held in very high esteem and to blaspheme his name meant death. The sun was held in such reverence as to awaken a suspicion of idolatry. An all-disposing Fate was admitted, yet free will, apparently, was not denied. They refused to join in the Temple sacrifices through fear of pollution, though they sent gifts thither; it seems that no blood-sacrifice was offered by them, as they claimed that a reverent mind was the best offering to God. The Sabbath was observed with the most rigorous exactitude, not even the calls of nature being answered. Assembled in their meeting-places, where they sat according to seniority, the scripture was read and explained, generally in an allegorical manner, by some wise member. They washed frequently, as extreme importance was attached to ceremonial purity, and they followed scrupulously the prescriptions against levitical defilements; even for a junior to touch a senior was pollution for the latter. What their esoteric doctrines were is not known. Death was welcomed, as they held "that their bodies were corruptible, and the matter composing them is not lasting, but souls are immortal and live forever, and proceeding from the most subtle ether having been drawn into bodies as into prisons by some natural longing. But when they are set free from the bonds of flesh, then they rejoice as being freed from a long servitude and mount upwards. And agreeing with the opinion of the Greeks they declare that the good dwell beyond the ocean in a place which is never oppressed by snow or rainstorms or intense heat, but is always calm and refreshed by a cool breeze breathing from the ocean. To bad souls they allot a gloomy, tempestuous cave full of never-ending torments" (Jos. Bell. Jud. I, ii, 8). Some conclude from the words just quoted that the Essenes disbelieved in the resurrection of the body. Among the virtues the Essenes cultivated especially obedience, truthfulness, continence, justice, and temperance; they paid great attention to the sick, respect to the aged, and showed marked kindness and hospitality to strangers. All men were regarded as equal, and slavery was regarded as contrary to nature. Those guilty of great crimes were punished by long exclusion or complete excommunication which, since they were not allowed to eat anything prepared by outsiders, entailed always great hardship and often death. Philosophy was rejected as useless and beyomd man's capacity, but ethics was studied with zeal. They searched for medicinal remedies in nature, as they devoted special care to the sick irrespective of creed, and investigated the properties of minerals. They laid claim to magical powers and ability to predict. For the latter some cases are given by Josephus, among them that of the Essene, Manahem, who foretold Herod the Great's kingship when he was a boy without any royal prospects. All things were held in common, their very houses not being their own. They laboured principally at agricultural pursuits or made farm implements or household articles, but never weapons of war, which they were not allowed to carry, except a staff for defense when travelling. Harvests and wages went to the stewards, who gave as each needed. Clothes and shoes were retained until worn out. No trading was allowed except barter. Anointing with oil was considered a defilement. Servants were forbidden as tempting men to injustice. Their rulers or presidents were elected, likewise their priests -- if they can be so called -- and their stewards. In towns an officer was appointed to look after travelling brethren. One-hundred members constituted a court of justice whose unanimous decision was irrevocable. The members were divided into four classes. The daily routine is given as follows: They were up before daybreak and spoke of no profane subject before the sun, and to it they addressed a prayer as if soliciting it to rise. Each was sent then to his appointed employment at which he worked until the fifth hour, i.e., eleven o'clock, when all assembled and having bathed in water specially exorcised, and clothed themselves in white, they entered the common dining room quietly and silently. Before each of them was placed some bread and a dish of one sort of food. A priest said grace and then, but not before, they might eat. At the end of the repast prayer was again said, their white garments laid aside, and resuming their ordinary attire they worked until evening, when the supped in the same manner. At the noonday meal, which was regarded apparently as a sacrificial feast, being prepared by their priests, no stranger was admitted, but at supper it was otherwise. As they spoke only in turn and observed great moderation in food and drink, the silence at the meals appeared to outsiders, so we are told, something very solemn and mysterious. Many of the Essenes reached a great age and they acquired such fortitude of mind and body that the worst torments inflicted on them by the Romans failed to shake their constancy and they met death with a smile. Most of the Essenes rejected marriage, not on account of any wrong in it but because they did not trust women and desired peace and harmony. They perpetuated their sect by adopting children and admitting adults who were "wearying of battling with the rough sea of life", as Pliny says. At their coming they received an apron to wear at their ablutions, a white garment, and a little spade-like instrument with which to dig a hole and cover their excrement from the rays of the sun. For one year their temperance was tested by observing outside the community its ascetic rules. Then came a fresh trial of two years, during which they shared in the lustral rites, but not in the meals, of the initiated. If found satisfactory they were chosen full members and bound themselves to fearful oaths to honour God, observe justice, to be loyal to all, but especially to those in authority, and if ever in authority themselves not to outshine others by dress, to love truth and honesty, to conceal nothing from their fellows, and to reveal nothing to strangers, also to keep secret at all costs their books and the names of their angels. This was the only time when Essenes took oaths, their word being regarded by all as so sacred that Herod excused them from the oath of allegiance. Some of them observed the same rules yet married, but merely for the order's sake, and only after three year's probation and if the woman appeared healthy and likely to bear children. The Essenes have received attention during the last three centuries out of all proportion to their numbers, their influence upon contemporary life, or their importance as factors in religious development. This sprang from two causes, one external and the other internal. The latter was the curious mixture of Jewish and foreign elements in their tenets and customs. This peculiarity aroused the curiosity and exercised the ingenuity of the learned to account for the combination. that the Essenes were really Jews, though speaking very likely Greek (Jews by race, says Josephus), is admitted. Their belief in one God, reverence for one God, strict observance of the Sabbath, fanatic adherence to circumcision (Hippolytus), etc., all show this; while their attitude toward the sun, election of priests, mode of life, likened to the Pythagorean by Josephus himself, etc., seemed to show outside influence. The source of this influence, like everything Essenic, begets controversy, but so far no one has succeeded in determining it satisfactorily. Buddhism, Parseeism, Pythagoreanism (old, new, and Orphic) Hellenism, etc., have all had their claims put forth as one of the parents of this hybrid sect. Suffice it to say that Persian-Babylonian influence through the Captivity, and Hellenism filtering in through Alexandria and the use of the Greek tongue can amply account for foreign elements. the contention that their elements, if divested of their Greek appearance, could be proved top have their roots in Biblical ground is not lightly to be set aside. The external cause of attention was the bias of English deists and Continental Rationalists who strove to metamorphize the Essenes into predecessors from whom gradually and quite naturally Christians developed; and Freemasons pretended to find in Essenism pure Christianity. In reference to such chimeras it is enough to say that between Essenism and Christianity there are some points of resemblance; it could not very well be otherwise because Essenism was Judaic in its foundation and Christianity was not destructive but progressive. On the other hand, the differences are fundamental. That John the Baptist and Christ were Essenes are mere assumptions based on similarities which spring naturally and independently from asceticism and voluntary poverty. So likewise the vaunted dependence between Essenism and monasticism can be resolved into necessary traits of any ascetic, communistic life (see "Wuku" in "Studien u. Mittheilungen d. Ben. Cist. ordens", 1890, I 223-30; Berlière in "Revue Bénéd", 1891, VIII, 12-190). "The attitude of Jesus and his disciples is altogether anti-Essenic" (Jewish Encyc.). The strict silence about any Messias is due partly perhaps to the secrecy of the Essenes and mainly no doubt to His rejection by their chronicler, Josephus. In fine, our present knowledge of the Essenes is slight and not at all trustworthy, as its sources as scanty, coloured, and unreliable Essenes One of three leading Jewish sects mentioned by Josephus as flourishing in the second century B.C., the others being the Pharisees and the Sadducees. Concerning their origin, history, and tenets there has been much inconclusive controversy. The only ancient authorities we have are a few paragraphs in Philo Judeaeus, a somewhat lengthier description in Josephus, and a scanty notice in Pliny. The following synopsis is derived mainly from the first two. They are styled Essæi by Philo, who derives it from hosios, "holy", and Essæi and Esseni by Josephus. Their numbers according to both authors was about 4000 and their chief place of residence along the west side, but away from the shore, of the Dead Sea. They also dwelt in other, but mostly secluded, parts and small towns of Palestine; yet some were found in cities. The sect arose about 150 B.C. (the first-named Essene is Judas, 110 B.C.) and disappeared towards the end of the first century A.D. They worshipped one God, Creator and Ruler of all things, omnipotent and omniscient. Moses was held in very high esteem and to blaspheme his name meant death. The sun was held in such reverence as to awaken a suspicion of idolatry. An all-disposing Fate was admitted, yet free will, apparently, was not denied. They refused to join in the Temple sacrifices through fear of pollution, though they sent gifts thither; it seems that no blood-sacrifice was offered by them, as they claimed that a reverent mind was the best offering to God. The Sabbath was observed with the most rigorous exactitude, not even the calls of nature being answered. Assembled in their meeting-places, where they sat according to seniority, the scripture was read and explained, generally in an allegorical manner, by some wise member. They washed frequently, as extreme importance was attached to ceremonial purity, and they followed scrupulously the prescriptions against levitical defilements; even for a junior to touch a senior was pollution for the latter. What their esoteric doctrines were is not known. Death was welcomed, as they held "that their bodies were corruptible, and the matter composing them is not lasting, but souls are immortal and live forever, and proceeding from the most subtle ether having been drawn into bodies as into prisons by some natural longing. But when they are set free from the bonds of flesh, then they rejoice as being freed from a long servitude and mount upwards. And agreeing with the opinion of the Greeks they declare that the good dwell beyond the ocean in a place which is never oppressed by snow or rainstorms or intense heat, but is always calm and refreshed by a cool breeze breathing from the ocean. To bad souls they allot a gloomy, tempestuous cave full of never-ending torments" (Jos. Bell. Jud. I, ii, 8). Some conclude from the words just quoted that the Essenes disbelieved in the resurrection of the body. Among the virtues the Essenes cultivated especially obedience, truthfulness, continence, justice, and temperance; they paid great attention to the sick, respect to the aged, and showed marked kindness and hospitality to strangers. All men were regarded as equal, and slavery was regarded as contrary to nature. Those guilty of great crimes were punished by long exclusion or complete excommunication which, since they were not allowed to eat anything prepared by outsiders, entailed always great hardship and often death. Philosophy was rejected as useless and beyomd man's capacity, but ethics was studied with zeal. They searched for medicinal remedies in nature, as they devoted special care to the sick irrespective of creed, and investigated the properties of minerals. They laid claim to magical powers and ability to predict. For the latter some cases are given by Josephus, among them that of the Essene, Manahem, who foretold Herod the Great's kingship when he was a boy without any royal prospects. All things were held in common, their very houses not being their own. They laboured principally at agricultural pursuits or made farm implements or household articles, but never weapons of war, which they were not allowed to carry, except a staff for defense when travelling. Harvests and wages went to the stewards, who gave as each needed. Clothes and shoes were retained until worn out. No trading was allowed except barter. Anointing with oil was considered a defilement. Servants were forbidden as tempting men to injustice. Their rulers or presidents were elected, likewise their priests -- if they can be so called -- and their stewards. In towns an officer was appointed to look after travelling brethren. One-hundred members constituted a court of justice whose unanimous decision was irrevocable. The members were divided into four classes. The daily routine is given as follows: They were up before daybreak and spoke of no profane subject before the sun, and to it they addressed a prayer as if soliciting it to rise. Each was sent then to his appointed employment at which he worked until the fifth hour, i.e., eleven o'clock, when all assembled and having bathed in water specially exorcised, and clothed themselves in white, they entered the common dining room quietly and silently. Before each of them was placed some bread and a dish of one sort of food. A priest said grace and then, but not before, they might eat. At the end of the repast prayer was again said, their white garments laid aside, and resuming their ordinary attire they worked until evening, when the supped in the same manner. At the noonday meal, which was regarded apparently as a sacrificial feast, being prepared by their priests, no stranger was admitted, but at supper it was otherwise. As they spoke only in turn and observed great moderation in food and drink, the silence at the meals appeared to outsiders, so we are told, something very solemn and mysterious. Many of the Essenes reached a great age and they acquired such fortitude of mind and body that the worst torments inflicted on them by the Romans failed to shake their constancy and they met death with a smile. Most of the Essenes rejected marriage, not on account of any wrong in it but because they did not trust women and desired peace and harmony. They perpetuated their sect by adopting children and admitting adults who were "wearying of battling with the rough sea of life", as Pliny says. At their coming they received an apron to wear at their ablutions, a white garment, and a little spade-like instrument with which to dig a hole and cover their excrement from the rays of the sun. For one year their temperance was tested by observing outside the community its ascetic rules. Then came a fresh trial of two years, during which they shared in the lustral rites, but not in the meals, of the initiated. If found satisfactory they were chosen full members and bound themselves to fearful oaths to honour God, observe justice, to be loyal to all, but especially to those in authority, and if ever in authority themselves not to outshine others by dress, to love truth and honesty, to conceal nothing from their fellows, and to reveal nothing to strangers, also to keep secret at all costs their books and the names of their angels. This was the only time when Essenes took oaths, their word being regarded by all as so sacred that Herod excused them from the oath of allegiance. Some of them observed the same rules yet married, but merely for the order's sake, and only after three year's probation and if the woman appeared healthy and likely to bear children. The Essenes have received attention during the last three centuries out of all proportion to their numbers, their influence upon contemporary life, or their importance as factors in religious development. This sprang from two causes, one external and the other internal. The latter was the curious mixture of Jewish and foreign elements in their tenets and customs. This peculiarity aroused the curiosity and exercised the ingenuity of the learned to account for the combination. that the Essenes were really Jews, though speaking very likely Greek (Jews by race, says Josephus), is admitted. Their belief in one God, reverence for one God, strict observance of the Sabbath, fanatic adherence to circumcision (Hippolytus), etc., all show this; while their attitude toward the sun, election of priests, mode of life, likened to the Pythagorean by Josephus himself, etc., seemed to show outside influence. The source of this influence, like everything Essenic, begets controversy, but so far no one has succeeded in determining it satisfactorily. Buddhism, Parseeism, Pythagoreanism (old, new, and Orphic) Hellenism, etc., have all had their claims put forth as one of the parents of this hybrid sect. Suffice it to say that Persian-Babylonian influence through the Captivity, and Hellenism filtering in through Alexandria and the use of the Greek tongue can amply account for foreign elements. the contention that their elements, if divested of their Greek appearance, could be proved top have their roots in Biblical ground is not lightly to be set aside. The external cause of attention was the bias of English deists and Continental Rationalists who strove to metamorphize the Essenes into predecessors from whom gradually and quite naturally Christians developed; and Freemasons pretended to find in Essenism pure Christianity. In reference to such chimeras it is enough to say that between Essenism and Christianity there are some points of resemblance; it could not very well be otherwise because Essenism was Judaic in its foundation and Christianity was not destructive but progressive. On the other hand, the differences are fundamental. That John the Baptist and Christ were Essenes are mere assumptions based on similarities which spring naturally and independently from asceticism and voluntary poverty. So likewise the vaunted dependence between Essenism and monasticism can be resolved into necessary traits of any ascetic, communistic life (see "Wuku" in "Studien u. Mittheilungen d. Ben. Cist. ordens", 1890, I 223-30; Berlière in "Revue Bénéd", 1891, VIII, 12-190). "The attitude of Jesus and his disciples is altogether anti-Essenic" (Jewish Encyc.). The strict silence about any Messias is due partly perhaps to the secrecy of the Essenes and mainly no doubt to His rejection by their chronicler, Josephus. In fine, our present knowledge of the Essenes is slight and not at all trustworthy, as its sources as scanty, coloured, and unreliable