What factors shaped German foreign policy?

1. What factors shaped German foreign policy? L/O – To identify the historical conditions, aims, and motives that helped form Germany’s expansionist foreign policy

2. What influenced his foreign policy? Racial Beliefs Legacy of Versailles • Hitler’s foreign policy was influenced and shaped by a number of factors. • These were a mixture of his own aims and motives, as well as domestic and international conditions that restrained or enabled the choices he took: Consolidating Power Domestic problems Contemporaryevents Nazi ideology

3. The Shock of Defeat on National Identity • Nazi ideology and Hitler’s foreign policy aims were not just shaped by, but created by the legacy of the First World War. • Under Kaiser Wilhelm’s expansionist foreign policy, Germany had fought in WW1 to protect and extend its territory and continental supremacy. • Defeat in 1918 shattered these plans, and the surprise abdication of the Kaiser on 9th November ruptured the very heart of the German state.

4. The Legacy of the War • The armistice that was signed on the 11th November came as a surprise to many Germans. Blame was heaped on the ‘November Criminals’ who had signed the armistice, thus the ‘stab-in-the-back’ myth was formed. This undermined the legitimacy of the newly created Weimar Republic. • Immediately, attempts were made to overthrow the government. The Sparticiststried in January 1919, then the Friekorps during the 1920 Kapp Putsch. • Both further undermined popular support for parliamentary government, whose ‘proportional representation’ system only served to create weak and indecisive coalition governments.

7. The ‘Diktat’ • Lack of support in the new government was further increased by the outcome of the Paris Peace Conference on 28th June 1919. • The severity of the Treaty of Versailles spawned revisionist feeling amongst nearly all Germans and did more than anything to sow the seeds for political extremism within Germany. • War Guilt, disarmament, territory lost, colonies captured, no Anschluss, and reparations fixed at £6.6 billion in 1921 – not a recipe that Germans were happy to deal with.

11. Economic Catastrophe • Economic crisis also exacerbated divisions with society. The Ruhr Crisis of 1923 would trigger hyperinflation within Germany, making the savings of millions worthless. • Despite a short-lived and American funded recovery in the 1920s, the 1929 Wall Street Crash and subsequent Great Depression plunged Germany back into crisis, with 1 in 3 unemployed and countless businesses bankrupt. • In these crisis conditions, Hitler’s NSDAP rose to become the largest party in 1932, with Hitler himself finally appointed Chancellor in 1933 – where upon he rapidly consolidated power into an authoritarian dictatorship.

12. Hitler’s Foreign Policy Aims and Motives • Thus by 1933, mainstream political parties that had accepted the post-war international order had been defeated, in favour of an increasingly ‘revisionist’ NSDAP that had promised to ‘tear-up’ the Treaty of Versailles and restore Germany to greatness. • But Hitler’s foreign policy wasn’t just shaped by a sense of historical injustice. He didn’t just want to return Germany to its pre-WW1 position. • He also had other, larger foreign policy aims, which keen observers could have detected from his earlier published works.

13. Source Analysis – Hitler’s Aims • With a partner, make a list of Hitler’s foreign policy aims outlined in Sources 1-4. • How, in Mein Kampfand the Zweite Buch, does Hitler justify German expansionism? • Which country is Hitler most hostile to? Why? • What change in his attitude to Britain occurs between Mein Kampf and the Hossbach Memorandum? • Why, in the Hossbach Memorandum, does Hitler argue that war for Lebensraum is required by the mid 1940s? • Which source do you consider to be most valuable in seeking to understand Hitler’s foreign policy? Refer to origin and content.

14. The International Context in the 1930s • So far you have seen how the legacy of the First World War provided fertile ground for extremism to flourish, which shaped the worldview of the NSDAP. • From the sources, you have seen how Hitler had his own unique aims and motives that went beyond simple revisionism. • Yet foreign policy isn’t made in a vacuum. Therefore, how did the international context in the 1930s help or hinder Hitler’s aims?

15. Source Analysis – International Context • Did the international context favour or hinder Hitler’s plans for German expansion? • Using Sources 5-8, list the factors that might have: • Helped Hitler revise the Versailles Settlement • Hindered Hitler revising the Versailles Settlement • Using the same sources, work out which country Hitler is describing in the speech bubbles on your worksheet.

16. What influenced his foreign policy? Racial Beliefs Legacy of Versailles • As you have seen with Mussolini and now Hitler, foreign policy is… • Determined by the aims and motives of historical actors… • But constrained by historical conditions… • And helped or hindered by the contemporary international context Domestic problems Consolidating Power Nazi ideology Contemporary Events

17. Think about what you know of Hitler’s foreign policy so far – which viewpoint would you agree with the most and why? Viewpoints on Foreign Policy • Historians can be divided into three competing viewpoints on the nature of German foreign policy under Hitler: • Hitler the Evil One!– The German historian Klaus Hildebrand argues Hitler had a plan for war from the beginning (Intentionist) • Hitler the Blunderer! – British historian AJP Taylor controversially argued that Hitler was just like any European statesman, he blundered into a war he didn’t want in 1939, had no plan and simply took advantage of opportunities (Structuralist/Determinist) • Hitler the Pragmatist! – British historian Allan Bullock views Hitler as an opportunist adventurer, who was motivated by a lust for power to take advantage of events (Intentionist/structuralist)

18. How did German foreign policy develop between 1933-37? L/O – To identify and examine the foreign policy steps Hitler took to achieve his aims in the years 1933-37

19. What influenced his foreign policy? Unite all Germans in one Reich! Smash Versailles! • As you have seen with Mussolini and now Hitler, foreign policy is… • Determined by the aims and motives of historical actors… • But constrained by historical conditions… • And helped or hindered by the contemporary international context Lebensraum! World Conquest!

20. Hitler’s Foreign Policy Aims • Appointed Chancellor in January 1933, Hitler came to power with four aims: reverse Versailles, unite all Germans, extend ‘living space’, and achieve world conquest as befits German power. • This necessitated Germany to strengthen its military. Yet the Treaty of Versailles had limited the Germany army to 100,000 men, banned tanks, submarines and an air force, and limited the navy to 6 battleships! • If Hitler was to achieve his aims, he would have to break the ToV, and end its multi-lateral involvement with the League of Nations.

21. The Geneva Disarmament Conference • Between 1930-34, members of the League of Nations and the USA met in Geneva to discuss world disarmament. Both the ToV and Covenant of the LoNscommitted members to disarm. • Germany had been a member of the League since 1926 and had signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact in 1928. • Yet Hitler saw disarmament proposals as unfair – it put Germany in a weaker position compared to its powerful neighbours – Poland and France.

23. The Geneva Disarmament Conference • This was a view that even the Weimar Government agreed with. Since 1922, Germany had been secretly building its armies using Dutch and Belgian suppliers. • The 1922 Treaty of Rapallo even enabled Germany to re-train its forces within the Soviet Union! • Hitler argued that Germany would disarm fully if other nations did the same. He also argued Germany should be allowed to re-arm to the same levels as its neighbours.

24. Germany Withdraws from Conference • Hitler would eventually decide to withdrawal from the Disarmament Conference and League of Nations in October 1933, citing ‘unequal treatment’. • To add legitimacy to the decision, he called for a public plebiscite – 95% of people voted in favour! • The international response was obviously alarmist – withdrawal from the Conference and League was a clear signal of his intention to rearm Germany and it broke the recently signed June 1933 ‘Four-Power Pact’ between Germany, Italy, France and Britain.

26. The International Response Ramsey MacDonald - UK • Britain’s attitude was essentially very sympathetic to German demands. Germany seemed a key ally vs the USSR, and it was clear that some form of treaty revision would be needed to keep Germany happy. • Poland was clearly worried, but Hitler skilfully placated the Poles with a 10 year non-aggression pact signed in January 1934. • The USSR responded to this potential German/Polish alliance by signing alliances with France and Czechoslovakia in 1935. • France itself, fearing rearmament, failed to find support to deal with Germany – the German/Polish agreement had weakened France’s alliance with Poland. Édouard Daladier - France Joseph Stalin - USSR

27. The Dolfuss Affair • Buoyed by public support over his decision to withdraw from disarmament talks, Hitler gambled on agitating for Anschluss. • In July 1934, Austrian Nazis assassinated Austrian Chancellor EnglebertDolfussin an attempt to unite Austria with Germany. • Mussolini, fearing German demands on its northern provinces, moved his armies to the Brenner Pass – Hitler was scared into backing down. This only served to isolate Germany and strengthen relations between Italy, France, and Britain.

30. The Saarland Returns • The coal-rich Saarland was German territory given to France after WW1 in compensation for the destruction of French mines. • It was administered by the League of Nations since 1919 and France was allowed to control its economy. The ToV stipulated that a plebiscite would be held in 1935 to decide which country the people wanted to revert to. • Unsurprisingly, the German-majority province voted 90% to return to Germany. This was a domestic success for Hitler.

31. The Inevitable Decision - Rearmament • Already acknowledged privately, on 16th March 1935 Hitler announced to the press that Germany possessed a new air force, the Luftwaffe, in contravention of the Treaty of Versailles. • At the same time, he also announced the re-introduction of conscription in order to build an army of 750,000. • France and Britain immediately denounced the move but did nothing to discourage Hitler. In response they signed the short-lived ‘Stresa Front’ with Italy in April 1935, all agreeing to protect the ToV.

32. Anglo-German Naval Agreement • After the breakdown of the Geneva Disarmament Conference, Britain feared that another naval arms race with Germany was imminent. • The naval reductions of the London Naval Conference of 1930 and the Great Depression had left the British navy facing an economic shortfall. • In this context, British admirals were content to see treaties signed with foreign powers to restrict their navies – this would mean Britain didn’t have to embark on expensive rearmament.

33. Anglo-German Naval Agreement • In June 1935, the Anglo-German Naval Agreement was signed which enabled Germany to build a fleet 35% of the size of the British Royal Navy. • Hitler saw this as the beginning of a potential UK/German alliance against the USSR. Britain saw this very differently – as a way to limit German rearmament. • The agreement was controversial – it enabled Germany to build a navy bigger than ToV limitations – it was also seen as a betrayal of the recently signed Stresa Pact by Italy and France – which would free Italy to act unilaterally in Abyssinia.

35. Remilitarisation of the Rhineland • On 7th March 1936, Hitler marched 20,000 troops back into the Rhineland which had been demilitarised by the ToV. This was another clear breach of the Treaty. • Hitler gambled that Britain and France wouldn’t react. The recent invasion of Abyssinia had shown that League members were unwilling to act and Hitler calculated that this would boost his popularity domestically. • Many in Britain were sympathetic and unwilling to consider war. After all, he was only marching into his ‘own backyard’. France, facing domestic elections, was also unwilling to risk war at this time. Hitler had gambled and won!

37. The Spanish Civil War • The failure of Britain and France to present a united front vs. Germany, and their hypocritical handling of the Abyssinian Crisis had convinced Mussolini to enter into better relations with Germany. • This new partnership was cemented by co-operation in the Spanish Civil War from July 1936. • Both nations sought to prop up the regime of General Franco. If he won, Italy and Germany would both have a new, fascist ally, and victory would isolate France.

38. The Rome-Berlin Axis • Cooperation in the Spanish Civil War resulted in a firmer commitment of friendship. On 1st November 1936, a formal alliance was signed. • Both recognised each other’s sphere of influence. Italy’s was in the Mediterranean, Germany’s in Central and Eastern Europe. • On 25th November, Germany would create the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. Italy would later join on 6th November 1937.

39. The Hossbach Meeting • By 1937, Hitler had transformed Germany from an isolated, weak, and surrounded nation, into a rapidly rearming economic powerhouse, which had managed to isolate France and encircle the USSR. • Germany was helped in this by the appeasement policies of Britain and France, the weakness of the League of Nations and the support of Italy. • On 5th November 1937, Hitler met with his top Generals to discuss and layout his aims for foreign policy over the next ten years.

40. The Hossbach Meeting • Recorded by Colonel Hossbachfive days after the meeting, the ‘Hossbach Memorandum’ details Hitler’s aims in foreign policy. • Confident that Germany’s position was now secure, Hitler argued for the need to quickly conquer both Austria and Czechoslovakia – two of France’s allies. • This would remove any chance of France surrounding Germany in opposing alliances. Hitler argued that war with France and Britain was inevitable, therefore it was better to strike first before they could rearm – by 1943!

42. Plenary • Why was Hitler’s foreign policy so successful between 1933-1937? • Could and should Hitler have been stopped at any point between 1933-1937? Consider the pros and cons of each suggestion… • To what extent could Britain be blamed for encouraging Hitler’s expansionism and revisionism? • Are there any parallels between Hitler’s foreign policies and nations today? Did we meet our learning objective? L/O – To identify and examine the foreign policy steps Hitler took to achieve his aims in the years 1933-37

43. How did Europe descend into war by 1939? L/O – To evaluate the steps Hitler took that led to war in September 1939

44. The Hossbach Meeting • By 1937, Hitler had transformed Germany from an isolated, weak, and surrounded nation, into a rapidly rearming economic powerhouse, which had managed to isolate France and encircle the USSR. • Germany was helped in this by the appeasement policies of Britain and France, the weakness of the League of Nations and the support of Italy. • On 5th November 1937, Hitler met with his top Generals to discuss and layout his aims for foreign policy over the next ten years.

45. The Hossbach Meeting • Recorded by Colonel Hossbachfive days after the meeting, the ‘Hossbach Memorandum’ details Hitler’s aims in foreign policy. • Confident that Germany’s position was now secure, Hitler argued for the need to quickly conquer both Austria and Czechoslovakia – two of France’s allies. • This would remove any chance of France surrounding Germany in opposing alliances. Hitler argued that war with France and Britain was inevitable, therefore it was better to strike first before they could rearm – by 1943!

46. Anschluss • Having failed to incite a coup for Anschluss in 1934, Germany had bided its time. It signed the Austro-German Agreement in 1936 which saw Germany promising to respect Austrian independence. • Yet by 1938, the diplomatic alignment in Europe had changed. After Abyssinia, Mussolini took a pro-German policy, giving Germany tacit consent that he wouldn’t oppose Anschluss. The remilitarisation of the Rhineland in 1936 proved that Britain and France wouldn’t do anything to oppose Hitler. • Austrians themselves were increasingly viewing Anschluss as a way to solve their economic problems. Yet its leader, Kurt von Schuschnigg, still opposed Anschluss.

47. Anschluss • Hitler again planned for Austrian Nazis to stir up trouble – the Austrian government would react – giving Hitler a pretext to invade. • On 12th February 1938, Von Papen invited Schuschnigg to meet Hitler. Hitler bombarded him with a two-hour speech, insisting on German domination of Austria and demanding an immediate signature. • Surrounded by Generals, Schuschnigg was intimidated into signing, appoint the Schuschnigg’s deputy, Seyss-Inquart as Interior Minister.

48. Anschluss • In a final attempt to counter growing Nazi influence, on 9th March Schuschnigg called for a plebiscite vote on Austrian independence, hoping to undermine Hitler. • On hearing this, Hitler flew into a rage. He demanded the plebiscite be cancelled otherwise Germany would invade. Goering then pressurised President Miklasinto forcing Schuschnigg to resign. He was replaced by Seyss-Inquart. • Despite this, Hitler then decided to invade to ensure full control. On 12th March, German troops entered Austria. There was no opposition. Austria was turned into a province of Germany – Ostmark. The Austrian Reichstag was dissolved and a plebiscite held – 99% of Austrian’s agreed! In April, Britain recognised this move.